In News:

Kilauea volcano erupts on Hawaii's Big Island.

Location:

• Kilauea is located on the southeastern shore of Hawaii’s Big Island, within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.

Type of Volcano:

• Active Shield Volcano – Kilauea is a shield volcano, meaning it has broad, gentle slopes due to the eruption of fluid lava, which flows easily across large areas. Its eruptions tend to be less explosive than those of other types of volcanoes, creating a relatively safe environment for research and tourism compared to more volatile volcanoes.

Key Features:

• Summit Caldera: Kilauea has a large caldera at its summit, Halema'uma'u, which is a major volcanic feature. The caldera formed from the partial collapse of the volcano after the eruption of large amounts of magma. The caldera spans around 3 miles in length and 2 miles in width, covering an area of over 4 square miles.
• Rift Zones: Kilauea has two active rift zones stretching to the east and southwest, which are areas where lava can erupt and spread across the island. These rift zones are responsible for much of the volcanic activity.
• Lava Flows: Over the last 1,000 years, Kilauea has covered 90% of its surface with lava flows, making it one of the most active volcanoes in the world. It is known for producing highly fluid lava, which allows the lava to travel long distances from the eruption site.
• Historical Activity: Kilauea has had near-continuous eruptions in modern history, particularly between 1983 and 2018, with 34 eruptions since 1952. The volcano has remained active with frequent eruptions, and its lava lake was visible at the summit until 1924.
• Mythological Significance: The volcano is considered the home of Pele, the Hawaiian goddess of fire, lightning, and volcanoes. The Halema'uma'u crater is especially sacred, as it is believed to be the goddess's dwelling place.

Why is Kilauea Significant?

• Active and Young: Kilauea is one of the youngest volcanic products of the Hawaiian hotspot, a series of volcanic islands formed by the movement of the Pacific plate over a stationary plume of hot material beneath the Earth’s crust.
• Continuous Eruptions: It has been erupting regularly, with the exception of a quiet period between 1924 and 1952. Its eruptions are a significant natural phenomenon that scientists and visitors closely monitor.
• Proximity to Mauna Loa: Kilauea is located near Mauna Loa, another active shield volcano. Together, these two volcanoes form a large volcanic region, and their slopes merge seamlessly, making this area home to two of the world's most active volcanoes.

Shield Volcanoes and Kilauea

• Shield Volcanoes: A shield volcano is characterized by its broad, gentle slopes. These slopes are formed by repeated eruptions of fluid basalt lava, which spreads easily over large areas. Unlike composite volcanoes, which have steep, conical shapes, shield volcanoes like Kilauea have a much wider, dome-like appearance.
• Low Explosivity: Eruptions from shield volcanoes are generally low in explosivity, and lava flows are typically slow-moving. However, explosive events can occur if water interacts with lava, but this is relatively rare in Kilauea's eruptions.

Kilauea's Current Activity

In December 2024, Kilauea began erupting again, continuing its pattern as one of the most active volcanoes in the world. This eruption has once again drawn attention to the ongoing volcanic activity on the Big Island of Hawaii, as the volcano regularly contributes to the reshaping of the island and its landscape.

Other Volcanoes in India:

While Kilauea is known for its active status, India also has volcanic features, although most are dormant or extinct:

• Barren Island (Andaman Islands) – India’s only active volcano.
• Narcondam (Andaman Islands) – A dormant volcano.
• Baratang (Andaman Islands) – Known for mud volcanoes.
• Deccan Traps (Maharashtra) – A vast volcanic plateau formed by ancient eruptions.
• Dhinodhar Hills (Gujarat) – Extinct volcano.
• Dhosi Hill (Haryana) – An ancient volcanic site with historical significance.

In News:

Google’s GenCast AI is an advanced weather forecasting model developed by DeepMind that uses machine learning techniques to provide more accurate and longer-term weather predictions compared to traditional forecasting methods.

How GenCast Works:

• Training on Reanalysis Data:
  • GenCast is trained on 40 years of reanalysis data (from 1979 to 2019). This data combines historical weather observations with modern weather forecasts, providing a comprehensive picture of past weather and climate conditions.
• Ensemble Forecasting with AI:
  • Unlike traditional Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models, which run simulations based on physical laws and initial conditions, GenCast uses an ensemble forecasting approach where multiple predictions are generated by an AI model, not an NWP model.
  • It produces a range of possible weather scenarios, each with different starting conditions, to reflect the uncertainty in weather forecasts.
• Neural Network and Diffusion Model:
  • GenCast uses a neural network architecture with 41,162 nodes and 240,000 edges that process weather data. Each node accepts data, manipulates it, and passes it to another node, helping to refine and improve predictions.
  • It uses a diffusion model, a type of AI model commonly used in generative AI. The model takes noisy input data, processes it through 30 refinement steps, and gradually produces a clearer forecast (de-noising the data).
  • The result is a probabilistic forecast, such as "there's a 25% chance of rain in Chennai on December 25," rather than a deterministic forecast, which would provide exact quantities like "5 mm of rain."
• Faster Processing:
  • The entire forecast process is incredibly efficient. GenCast can generate 50 ensemble forecasts at once with a spatial resolution of 0.25° x 0.25° (latitude-longitude) and temporal resolution of 12 hours.
  • Using Google's TPU v5 units, it can produce these forecasts in just 8 minutes—far faster than traditional supercomputers, which can take several hours to run NWP simulations.

Key Features of GenCast:

• Better Performance on Extreme Weather: GenCast has shown superior accuracy in predicting extreme weather events, such as tropical cyclones, compared to traditional NWP models like those from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF).
• Probabilistic Forecasting: GenCast produces probabilistic forecasts, offering predictions like the likelihood of rain rather than precise measures, which helps with better preparation, especially for extreme weather events.
• Long-Term Forecasting: GenCast can generate forecasts for up to 15 days, which is longer than most traditional models, and is particularly useful for anticipating events like wind power generation and tropical cyclone tracking.
• Efficiency: GenCast's speed and resource efficiency set it apart from traditional NWP models, reducing forecast times dramatically.

Comparison with Traditional Weather Models:

• Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP): Traditional NWP models rely on solving complex physical equations to simulate the atmosphere and provide deterministic forecasts. These models require significant computational power and are typically limited to weather predictions for about a week.
• GenCast's Probabilistic Forecasts: In contrast, GenCast offers probabilistic predictions, making it better suited for providing early warnings about extreme weather, with better lead times for disaster preparation.

Future Developments:

While GenCast is impressive, Google acknowledges the importance of traditional NWP models for both supplying initial conditions and providing the foundational data needed to train AI models like GenCast. Ongoing collaboration with weather agencies is crucial to enhancing AI-based methods for weather prediction.

Overall, GenCast represents a significant leap forward in the use of AI for weather forecasting, with potential for greater accuracy, efficiency, and longer-term predictions compared to current methods.

In News

Justice V. Ramasubramanian, a retired Supreme Court judge, has been appointed as the new chairperson of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC). This decision was made by President Droupadi Murmu, and it comes following the completion of Justice Arun Kumar Mishra's tenure as NHRC chairperson in June 2023. After Justice Mishra's retirement, Vijaya Bharathi Sayani served as the acting chairperson. Alongside Justice Ramasubramanian, Priyank Kanoongo and Dr. Justice Bidyut Ranjan Sarangi (Retd.) have also been appointed as members of the commission.

Justice Ramasubramanian had been appointed a judge of the Supreme Court in September 2019 and retired in June 2023. His appointment to the NHRC is seen as a significant development for human rights advocacy and protection in India.

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

Establishment and Legal Framework

• Formation Date: The NHRC was established on October 12, 1993, under the Protection of Human Rights Act (PHRA), 1993.
• Paris Principles: It was created in alignment with the Paris Principles (1991), which were endorsed by the UN General Assembly in 1993, aimed at setting standards for national human rights institutions.
• Statutory Body: NHRC is a statutory body, meaning it is established by law, with a primary function to safeguard human rights in India.

Objectives

The NHRC's primary objective is to promote and protect human rights as defined in Section 2(1)(d) of the PHRA, which include fundamental rights such as:

• Right to Life
• Right to Liberty
• Right to Equality
• Right to Dignity

These rights are guaranteed by the Indian Constitution and are essential to the protection of individuals' freedoms and welfare.

Composition of NHRC

• Chairperson: A former Chief Justice of India or a former Supreme Court judge serves as the chairperson.
• Members:
  • One former or sitting Supreme Court judge.
  • One former or sitting Chief Justice of a High Court.
  • Three members, with at least one woman, who have experience in human rights matters.
• Ex-Officio Members: The chairpersons of various National Commissions (e.g., SC/ST, Women, Minorities) and the Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities are also part of the NHRC.

Functions and Powers

The NHRC has several crucial functions and powers to ensure the protection and promotion of human rights:

• Inquiry into Human Rights Violations: The commission can inquire into violations of human rights by public servants or negligence in protecting rights.
• Recommendations: It can make recommendations on how to protect, promote, and effectively implement human rights within India.
• Review of Laws: NHRC assesses various laws, treaties, and international instruments related to human rights.
• Research and Awareness: It promotes research, publications, and awareness about human rights issues, including educating the public about their rights and safeguards.
• Inspection of Institutions: NHRC has the authority to visit and inspect institutions such as jails, detention centers, and other places of confinement to ensure the humane treatment of individuals.

In News:

The ‘no-detention’ policy was a significant part of India’s education reforms under the Right to Education (RTE) Act of 2009. This policy aimed to prevent the detention or expulsion of students until the completion of elementary education (Classes 1-8), with a focus on reducing dropout rates and ensuring every child receives at least basic education. However, the policy has been contentious, with arguments both for and against its implementation.

What was the ‘No-Detention’ Policy and Why Was It Introduced?

The RTE Act (2009) made education free and compulsory for children aged 6 to 14, under Article 21A of the Constitution. Section 16 of the Act specifically prohibited the detention or expulsion of students in elementary education (Classes 1-8). The rationale was to prevent the demotivation and fear of failure that might cause children to drop out of school, especially those from marginalized backgrounds. By promoting automatic progression through grades, the policy aimed to ensure that no child was left behind due to academic struggles.

Key to this system was Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), which assessed students on a holistic basis, beyond just formal exams, encouraging learning through regular feedback and assessments.

Amendments to the RTE Act (2017 and 2019)

In 2017, a Bill was introduced to amend the RTE Act, following concerns about the effectiveness of the ‘no-detention’ policy. The amended policy allowed for regular exams in Classes 5 and 8. If students failed, they would be given a re-examination within two months. If they still did not meet promotion criteria, detention could be enforced. This amendment empowered the Centre and states to decide whether to detain students in these grades.

The amendment came after criticism of the original policy for promoting students without sufficient learning progress. States like Madhya Pradesh and Punjab argued that no-detention was leading to poor academic performance, and called for a return to the traditional system of promoting students based on examination results.

Arguments for and Against the No-Detention Policy

Arguments for No-Detention:

• Reduced Dropout Rates: The policy helped ensure students, especially from disadvantaged backgrounds, continued in school without the fear of failure, leading to a drop in dropout rates.
• Holistic Development: It encouraged a child-centric learning approach where students were assessed on their overall development rather than just exam performance.
• Social Inclusivity: By promoting students regardless of performance, it was hoped that education would be more inclusive, preventing marginalization of students from lower socio-economic backgrounds.

Arguments Against No-Detention:

• Decline in Learning Outcomes: The policy led to a lack of motivation for students to perform academically. Without the accountability of exams, many students became less serious about their studies.
• Low Teacher Accountability: With automatic promotion, teachers had less incentive to ensure quality learning, leading to an overall dip in teaching standards.
• Impact on Educational Standards: Data indicated a decline in learning levels in government schools, as students were passed through the system without mastering the required skills.

In 2015, the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) conducted a study suggesting that more flexibility was needed in the policy, allowing schools to retain students who were significantly behind. However, there were differing views within the committee. Some members argued that detention had no proven benefits, and that the real issue was the poor quality of the education system itself.

In 2016, the TSR Subramanian Committee on the New Education Policy suggested continuing the no-detention policy until Class 5, citing evidence of reduced dropout rates and increased enrollment. However, other states pushed for scrapping it due to concerns over declining educational standards.

The Shift Toward Scrapping the No-Detention Policy

By 2019, the RTE Act was amended to give states the discretion to hold back students in Classes 5 and 8, if they failed to meet the promotion criteria. This change came after state feedback that the no-detention policy was having adverse effects on learning outcomes and teacher accountability.

In 2024, the Ministry of Education took further steps to formalize this shift by introducing new rules under the RTE Act Amendment. Students failing to meet the promotion criteria in Classes 5 and 8 will be given additional instruction and an opportunity for a re-examination. If they still fail, they can be detained, with specialized guidance provided to help them catch up.

Which States Continue or Scrapped the No-Detention Policy?

The decision to maintain or scrap the policy varies across states and union territories:

• States Retaining No-Detention Policy: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, among others, continue to implement the no-detention policy, citing its role in minimizing dropouts and promoting inclusivity.
• States That Have Scrapped the Policy: Delhi, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and Gujarat have already discarded the policy, opting for examinations and re-examinations in Classes 5 and 8 to ensure better academic accountability.

Why the Controversy?

The debate over the no-detention policy hinges on balancing academic accountability with social inclusivity. Supporters argue that it ensures children from marginalized communities receive their full elementary education, while opponents point to the decline in learning standards, especially in government schools, as a major issue.

In summary, while the no-detention policy was introduced with the noble aim of reducing school dropouts and ensuring every child completed at least elementary education, its effectiveness has been questioned due to concerns over declining learning outcomes. The recent changes represent a shift towards better accountability and quality in education, while still ensuring that children receive additional support before being detained.

In News:

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is set to launch its Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) mission, a key milestone in India’s space capabilities. The mission will deploy two 220-kg satellites, SDX01 (Chaser) and SDX02 (Target), into a 740 km orbit using the PSLV-C60 rocket. SpaDeX aims to demonstrate the technology for satellite docking, a critical component for future space missions such as lunar exploration and the development of India's own space station, Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS).

Key Objectives of SpaDeX Mission:

• Primary Objective: To demonstrate the rendezvous, docking, and undocking of two small spacecraft (SDX01 and SDX02) autonomously.
• Secondary Objectives: Include testing electric power transfer between the docked spacecraft, composite spacecraft control, and post-docking payload operations.

The mission will see the two spacecraft gradually approach each other, performing a series of maneuvers, starting at a 20 km distance and closing to millimeter-scale distances before docking. Once docked, they will execute secondary tasks, such as scientific payload operations, using advanced technologies including high-resolution cameras, multi-spectral payloads, and radiation monitors.

Technological Innovations:

• Docking Mechanism: An indigenous, motor-driven, low-impact, androgynous docking system with capture, extension/retraction, and rigidization mechanisms. Both spacecraft are equipped with identical docking systems to simplify operations.
• Advanced Sensors: The spacecraft will use a Laser Range Finder (LRF), Proximity & Docking Sensors (PDS), and Rendezvous Sensors for precise distance measurement and to guide the docking process.
• Inter-Satellite Communication: The spacecraft will employ autonomous inter-satellite links (ISL) for real-time communication and data sharing.
• RODP Processor: This system, based on GNSS, ensures accurate position and velocity determination for the spacecraft during the docking procedure.

Significance of the SpaDeX Mission:

• Technological Milestone: SpaDeX positions India as the fourth country, after the US, Russia, and China, to develop space docking technology.
• Space Exploration: The successful demonstration will facilitate future space exploration, including Chandrayaan-4 and interplanetary missions.
• Modular Space Infrastructure: Space docking is essential for building multi-modular space stations, which allows the construction of large structures in space and enhances flexibility for future missions.
• Satellite Servicing: Docking enables satellite servicing, including repairs, refueling, and upgrades, which increases the operational lifespan of satellites.

SpaDeX Mission for India’s Space Station:

The SpaDeX mission is a crucial step towards India’s plans for the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS). This will be India’s first modular space station, designed to conduct advanced scientific research, including in life sciences and medicine. BAS is expected to begin operations by 2035, and the development of docking technology is pivotal for its assembly and operation.

Mission Launch Details:

The PSLV-C60 rocket is set to launch the SpaDeX mission from Sriharikota. The mission is a demonstration of India's growing space capabilities and its indigenous technologies, including the Bharatiya Docking System (BDS).

Challenges and Technological Requirements:

The docking process requires extremely precise maneuvering, as the two spacecraft will be traveling at speeds of 28,800 km/h and must reduce their relative velocity to just 0.036 km/h before docking. This level of precision is crucial for future missions involving spacecraft servicing, crew transfers, and the construction of space infrastructure like BAS.

In addition to the docking demonstration, SpaDeX will carry 24 academic and startup payloads aboard the PSLV’s fourth stage, POEM (PSLV Orbital Experimental Module-4), offering a valuable platform for microgravity research.

Future Prospects:

The success of SpaDeX will pave the way for more complex missions, such as India’s lunar and Mars exploration programs, the development of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station, and international collaborations in satellite servicing and space infrastructure.