Why is it in the News?

On Monday (April 8), a total solar eclipse will cross North America, passing over Mexico, the United States, and Canada. This type of solar eclipse is a rare event for any particular spot.

What is a Solar Eclipse?

• A solar eclipse takes place when the Moon moves in the middle of Earth and the Sun.
  • The Moon blocks the light of the Sun, either fully or partially, which casts a huge shadow on some parts of the world.

There are four different types of solar eclipses, including:

• Total solar eclipse: When the Moon blocks the Sun entirely, the areas in the center of the Moon’s shadow at the time witness a total solar eclipse.
  • The sky darkens and people who are in the path of a total solar eclipse can get a glimpse of the Sun’s corona — the outer atmosphere — which is usually not visible due to the bright face of the Sun.
• Annual solar eclipse: When the Moon passes in front of the Sun but is at or near the farthest point from Earth, an annular solar eclipse occurs.
  • In this scenario, the Moon covers the Sun in such a way that only the periphery of the Sun remains visible — looking like a ring of fire.
• Partial solar eclipse: A partial solar eclipse takes place when the Moon blocks just a part of the Sun, giving it a crescent shape.
  • During both partial and annular eclipses, the regions outside the area covered by the Moon’s umbra — the middle and the darkest part of the lunar shadow — will see a partial solar eclipse.
  • Partial solar eclipse is the most common type of solar eclipse.
• Hybrid solar eclipse: A hybrid solar eclipse — the rarest type of solar eclipse — is witnessed when an eclipse shifts between annular and total as the shadow of the Moon moves across the globe.
  • In this case, some parts of the world see a total solar eclipse, while others observe an annular solar eclipse.

How Often Does a Solar Eclipse Take Place?

• A solar eclipse is witnessed only during the new moon — when the Moon and Sun are aligned on the same side of Earth.
  • A new moon occurs about 29.5 days because that is how long it takes the Moon to orbit Earth.
  • This, however, does not mean that a solar eclipse happens every month. It takes place only between two to five times annually, because the Moon does not orbit Earth in the same plane as the Earth orbits the Sun.
• In fact, the Moon is tilted by about five degrees with respect to Earth.
  • As a result, most of the time when the Moon is in between the Sun and Earth, its shadow is either too high or too low to fall on the Earth.

Why is a Total Solar Eclipse so Rare?

• While there can be between two and five solar eclipses every year, total eclipses only happen about once every 18 months or so.
• This is because a total eclipse is only visible if one is standing in the umbra — the other part of the shadow is called the penumbra, which is not as dark as the umbra.
  • The umbral shadow is very small, covering only a small part of Earth.
• In fact, the entire path of the umbral shadow during a solar eclipse will only cover less than one percent of the globe.
  • This is why only very few people will get to see a total eclipse at a time.
• Moreover, about 70 percent of the globe is underwater and half of the land is considered uninhabited.
  • That’s why, it is quite rare when a total solar eclipse happens and a lot of people get to see it.

Umbra and Penumbra:

• During a solar eclipse, the Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun, casting a shadow on the Earth's surface.
• This shadow consists of two main parts: the umbra and the penumbra.
  • The umbra is the central, darkest part of a shadow, such as during a total solar eclipse when the Moon completely covers the Sun.
  • The penumbra is the outer part of the shadow where the obscuration is partial, resulting in a partial solar eclipse.

Why is it in the News?

Consumer confidence for the year ahead has improved further on the back of higher optimism, which resulted in the Future Expectations Index (FEI) rising by 2.1 points to 125.2, the highest level since mid-2019, according to a Reserve Bank of India survey conducted in March 2024.

What is the Consumer Confidence Survey (CCS)?

• The Consumer Confidence Survey (CCS) is a comprehensive assessment conducted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to gauge consumer perceptions of the current economic landscape.
  • Administered across various cities, the CCS measures consumer confidence based on key indicators such as economic conditions, employment prospects, price levels, income, and spending patterns.
• The survey collects valuable insights into consumer sentiments by posing a series of questions about both present and future economic scenarios.
  • These responses offer a glimpse into consumers' perceptions of the prevailing financial environment, shedding light on economic trends, opportunities, and potential challenges.
• As a vital tool for policymakers, the Consumer Confidence Survey contributes to shaping effective strategies aimed at fostering sustainable economic growth and improving overall financial stability.

Highlights of the Survey:

• The survey revealed optimistic consumer sentiments across all parameters, reflecting a positive outlook on the current and future economic landscape.
  • Key indicators, such as the Current Situation Index (CSI) and Future Expectations Index (FEI), showcased significant improvements, reaching their highest levels since mid-2019.
• Current Situation Index (CSI): Measuring overall consumer perception of the present economic situation, the CSI experienced a notable increase of 3.4 points compared to the previous survey, currently standing at 98.5.
• Future Expectations Index (FEI): Evaluating consumer sentiment for the next 12 months, the FEI witnessed a substantial surge, reaching its highest point since mid-2019 and indicating a positive outlook for the upcoming year.
  • The CSI and FEI are calculated based on net responses concerning the economic situation, income, spending, employment, and price levels, comparing the current period with one year ago and the anticipated changes in the year ahead, respectively.
• Households’ Inflation Expectation Survey: There was a slight increase in the proportion of households anticipating an overall rise in prices and inflation within the next three months and one year, as observed across general prices and most product categories when compared to the previous survey round.
• Additionally, the survey results revealed noteworthy enhancements in households' perceptions regarding the general economic situation and employment prospects, signaling a sense of optimism for both the current period and the years ahead.

Why is it in the News?

The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has recently forecasted an 83% likelihood that the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) will move into a neutral range between April and June 2024.

What is the Oceanic Niño Index?

• The Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) primary indicator for monitoring El Niño and La Niña, which are opposite phases of the climate pattern called the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or “ENSO” for short.
  • NOAA is a US governmental agency responsible for monitoring and researching the Earth's oceans, atmosphere, and climate, and providing weather forecasts and environmental data.
• The ONI is the difference between a three-month running average of the sea surface temperature averaged over an area of the ocean from 120 West to 170 West longitude along the equator and the long-term average for the same three months.
• NOAA considers El Niño conditions to be present when the Oceanic Niño Index is +0.5 or higher, indicating the east-central tropical Pacific is significantly warmer than usual.
• La Niña conditions exist when the Oceanic Niño Index is -0.5 or lower, indicating the region is cooler than usual.

What is El Niño and La Niña?

• El Niño and La Niña are two natural climate phenomena that occur in the Pacific Ocean, characterized by fluctuations in ocean surface temperatures.
• They are part of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle, which impacts global weather patterns.
  • El Niño refers to the warming of ocean surface temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific.
    • This warming causes changes in atmospheric pressure and wind patterns, which can lead to drought conditions in parts of South America and heavy rainfall in other regions, such as the southern United States.
  • La Niña is the opposite phase of the ENSO cycle, characterized by cooler-than-average ocean surface temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific.
    • This results in the strengthening of normal trade winds, causing increased rainfall in some regions, such as Indonesia and northern Australia, and drier conditions in other areas, including the southwestern United States.

Effects of El Niño and La Niña on India:

• Both El Niño and La Niña have significant impacts on India's climate, particularly during the monsoon season.
• El Niño events often lead to weaker monsoon winds and reduced rainfall in India, causing droughts and impacting agricultural production.
• On the other hand, La Niña events typically result in stronger monsoon winds and higher rainfall, leading to better agricultural yields.
  • However, excessive rainfall can also cause floods and landslides in some regions.
• Monitoring and predicting the occurrence of El Niño and La Niña events is crucial for India's weather forecasting and agricultural planning.
• Accurate predictions enable authorities to take necessary measures to mitigate potential adverse effects on agriculture and infrastructure.

Why is it in the News?

The Election Commission said that over 73 thousand applications had been received on the Suvidha Portal in just 20 days since the announcement of General Elections 2024.

About SUVIDHA Portal:

• The Suvidha portal is a technological solution developed by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure a level playing field upholding the democratic principles of free, fair, and transparent elections.
• Suvidha's robust track record showcases its ability to streamline requests for permissions and facilities during election campaigns, catering to diverse needs such as rallies, canvassing, and temporary party offices.
• The Suvidha portal offers both online and offline submission options, ensuring inclusivity and equal opportunity for all stakeholders.
  • Permission requests can be processed efficiently through a robust IT platform managed by nodal officers from various state departments.
  • The portal's user-friendly design allows political parties and candidates to submit requests from anywhere, at any time.
• To enhance transparency and convenience, Suvidha also provides a companion app for real-time tracking of application statuses.
  • Available on both iOS and Android platforms, the app ensures a seamless user experience.
  • Moreover, the Suvidha portal promotes accountability by offering features such as real-time tracking, status updates, timestamped submissions, and SMS communication.
• Data collected on the Suvidha platform serves as a valuable resource for scrutinizing election expenditures, thereby promoting greater integrity in the electoral process.
• With Suvidha, the Election Commission of India demonstrates its commitment to facilitating a fair, efficient, and transparent electoral environment, granting equal access to all political parties and candidates seeking permissions and clearances during election campaigns.

Why is it in the News?

In its manifesto for the Lok Sabha election, the primary opposition party pledged to cease the weaponization of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) if entrusted with power.

About the Prevention of Money Laundering Act:

• The Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) constitutes the cornerstone of India's legal framework aimed at combating money laundering, with its enactment and enforcement starting from July 1, 2005.
• Enacted by India's Parliament under Article 253, which authorizes legislation for implementing international conventions, the Act has three primary objectives:
  • Prevention and control of money laundering
  • Confiscation of proceeds derived from laundering, and
  • Addressing related issues within India.
• The Act empowers the Director of the Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND) and the Director (Enforcement) with exclusive and concurrent powers to enforce its provisions.
• Subsequent amendments were made in 2009 and 2012 through the Prevention of Money Laundering (Amendment) Acts.

What is Money Laundering?

• Money laundering is defined as the process through which an illegal fund, such as black money, is obtained from illegal activities and disguised as legal money, eventually portrayed as white money.
• The money laundered is passed on through various channels or phases of conversions and transfers to make it legal and eventually reach a legally acceptable institution, like a bank.

Brief History of the PMLA:

• In response to the emergence of global terrorism in the 1990s and the subsequent imperative to curb illicit financial flows, international efforts intensified, culminating in the establishment of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) in 1989 to coordinate anti-money laundering endeavors worldwide.

Legislative Response:

• Against this backdrop, India, as a member of FATF, was prompted to enact domestic legislation to combat money laundering following the United Nations General Assembly's political declaration in 1998 urging member states to implement national anti-money laundering measures.

Enactment Process:

• The initial iteration of the Prevention of Money-Laundering Bill in 1998 was introduced by the NDA government, aiming to address various aspects such as the prevention of money laundering, confiscation of illicit proceeds, and establishment of coordinating agencies.
• However, concerns regarding potential misuse of the proposed law led to bipartisan opposition, prompting referral to the Department-related Standing Committee on Finance.
  • Despite deliberations and amendments, the bill was eventually passed by Parliament in 2002, with enforcement commencing in 2005 following the formulation of accompanying rules under the subsequent UPA government.

Significant Amendments in the PMLA:

• Over the years, the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) has undergone various revisions, but it was the amendments introduced in 2009 and 2012 that notably empowered the Enforcement Directorate (ED) to take coercive measures against politicians.
• In 2009, amendments expanded the PMLA's scope to include 'Criminal conspiracy' under Section 120B of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), enabling the ED to intervene in cases alleging conspiracy, even if the primary offense isn't listed in the PMLA.
  • For instance, this broadening facilitated the ED's pursuit of cases like the land-grabbing accusations against a former Jharkhand CM, currently incarcerated in Ranchi.
• Furthermore, the 2009 amendments granted the ED international jurisdiction for tracking laundered money, enhancing its global reach.
• In 2012, the PMLA was amended to elevate the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 (PC Act) to Part A of the statute's schedule from Part B.
  • This move imposed stricter bail conditions on corruption suspects, requiring courts to ascertain substantial evidence of guilt if bail opposition arises from the public prosecutor.
  • Part A of the schedule encompassed various serious offenses, including acts like waging war against the nation, drug trafficking, and violations of the PC Act, among others.

Supreme Court's Verdicts on the Constitutionality of PMLA:

• In the case of Vijay Madanlal Choudhary & Ors vs Union of India (2022), a three-judge Bench of the Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), which faced challenges in over 200 individual petitions.
• One of the primary challenges was regarding the creation of an alternative criminal law system by the PMLA, as the Enforcement Directorate (ED) operates outside the ambit of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC).
  • Not being classified as 'police', the ED is not bound by CrPC provisions for searches, seizures, arrests, and property attachments.
  • The judgment affirmed the ED's expansive powers, including the admissibility of statements made to it in court.
• In Nikesh Tarachand Shah v Union of India (2017), the PMLA, akin to the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), imposed stringent bail conditions, requiring accused individuals to prove the absence of a "prima facie" case against them and their commitment to refraining from future offenses.
  • The Supreme Court initially struck down these provisions as unconstitutional.
  • However, Parliament reintroduced them through an amendment to the PMLA via the Finance Act, of 2018, which the Supreme Court upheld in 2021.
• While certain aspects of the 2021 ruling, such as the ED's non-obligation to disclose the ECIR (similar to an FIR in criminal cases), are currently under review, the ruling stands as the prevailing law of the land.