Why is it in the News?

Recently, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) reported that “Indian spies” had been “kicked out of Australia” after being caught trying to steal secrets about sensitive defence projects and airport security, as well as classified information on Australia’s trade relationships”.

What is the Five Eyes?

• The Five Eyes is an intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, formed in 1946.
• The alliance is based on a series of bilateral agreements on surveillance and intelligence-sharing.
  • These arrangements are commonly known as the United Kingdom-United States Communication Intelligence Act (UKUSA) agreement.
• The UKUSA agreement is a secret pact that, since 1946, has allowed the two countries to share intelligence with each other.
  • The UKUSA agreement was so secret that its existence wasn't even acknowledged until 2005.
• Each of the Five Eyes states pursues interception, collection, and decryption activities and shares all intelligence information obtained with the others by default.
• These countries share information with each other through the ultra-sensitive STONEGHOST network, which has been claimed to contain "some of the Western world's most closely guarded secrets".
• The Five Eyes states share integrated programmes, staff, and bases.

Origins of the Five Eyes

• During World War II, informal secret meetings between British and American code-breakers laid the groundwork for establishing the FE alliance.
• After the Cold War, the information-sharing arrangement became formalised under the ECHELON surveillance system in the 1960s.

How does the Five Eyes Alliance operate?

• The alliance facilitates the sharing of signals intelligence among the five countries.
• The countries agree to exchange by default all signals intelligence they gather.
• The bedrock of the Five Eyes Alliance is based on the joint abilities of the United Kingdom's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) and the USA's National Security Agency (NSA) to intercept intelligence.
  • These agencies collect and decrypt signal intelligence, called SigInt, which involves internet, telephone, radio and satellite data from across the world.
• The UKUSA Agreement, which was made public in 2010, states:
  • "It will be contrary to this agreement to reveal its existence to any third party whatsoever" and "each party will seek the agreement of the other to any action with third parties and will take no action until its advisability is agreed upon."

Why is it in the News?

In a study published recently, researchers analyzed more than 500 future emissions scenarios the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessed in its latest reports.

About the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):

• The IPCC was created in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• It is the leading international body for the assessment of climate change.
• It is a key source of scientific information and technical guidance to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement.
• The IPCC provides governments with scientific information for use in developing climate policies.
• The IPCC currently has 195 members.
• The IPCC does not undertake new research. Instead, it synthesizes published and peer-reviewed literature to develop a comprehensive assessment of scientific understanding.
  • These assessments are published in IPCC reports.
  • They are subject to multiple drafting and review processes to promote an objective, comprehensive, and transparent assessment of current knowledge.
• The IPCC’s work is guided by principles and procedures that govern all main activities of the organization.
• IPCC member governments and observer organizations nominate experts and the IPCC's scientific governing body, the IPCC Bureau, selects authors and editors with expertise in a range of scientific, technical, and socio-economic fields.

What are IPCC Assessment Reports?

• Typically, IPCC reports comprise three Working Group reports:
  • One on physical science
  • One on climate adaptation, and
  • One on mitigation action.
• One synthesis report consolidates findings from the three Working Group reports.
• Then there are thematic special reports.
• Each report assesses climate-related scientific literature to capture the state of scientific, technical, and socio-economic knowledge on climate change.
• The IPCC is currently in its Seventh Assessment cycle (AR7).

How Does it Assess Future Scenarios?

• The IPCC uses ‘modelled pathways’ to estimate what it will take to limit the warming of the earth’s surface.
• These pathways are drawn using Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) that describe human and earth systems.
• IAMs are complex models that examine possible futures of the energy and climate systems and economies.
• Its macroeconomic models can point to future growth levels in terms of GDP;
  • Its energy models can project future consumption
  • Vegetation models can examine land-use changes; and
  • Earth-system models use the laws of physics to understand how climate evolves.
• With such integration across disciplines, IAMs are meant to provide policy-relevant guidelines on climate action.
• However, these models also have shortcomings. They prioritize least-cost assessments — for example, the absolute cost of setting up a solar plant or undertaking afforestation in India is lower than in the U.S.
• However, experts have said they could exercise the option of enabling countries to equitably share the burden of action, where the richest undertake more drastic mitigation action more immediately.

About the Latest Study:

• Conducted by a team of specialists from Bengaluru and Chennai, the study scrutinized 556 scenarios outlined in the IPCC's AR6 report.
• Their findings indicate that by 2050, per-capita GDP in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, West Asia, and other parts of Asia will remain below the global average.
• Collectively, these regions account for 60% of the global population.
• Additionally, the study highlighted disparities in the consumption of goods and services, as well as energy and fossil fuel consumption, between the Global North and the Global South.

Why Does Equity Matter?

• Equity is crucial in climate action as per the UNFCCC, which mandates developed nations to lead in combating climate change.
• However, current modeling approaches often overlook equity, burdening poorer nations disproportionately.
• Researchers highlight the need for modeling techniques that prioritize climate justice and equitable distribution of responsibilities.
• They argue that mitigation pathways should ensure developed regions accelerate towards net negative emissions and allocate carbon budgets to less developed regions.
• Addressing this gap requires a paradigm shift in scenario building, emphasizing both equity and environmental sustainability.
• This approach is vital for fostering global cooperation and achieving meaningful climate action.

Why is it in the News?

The per capita monthly household expenditure more than doubled in 2022-23 as compared to 2011-12, according to the latest study by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO).

Context:

• As per the 2022-23 report, rising inequality between the top and bottom of the pyramid.
• Urban and rural households register higher expenditure, spending less on food items.
• New methodology and questionnaire used in Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2022-23.

About the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO):

• The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) comes under the Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation headed by a Director General.
• It is responsible for the conduct of large-scale sample surveys in diverse fields on an All-India basis.
• Primarily data are collected through nationwide household surveys on various socio-economic subjects, Annual Survey of Industries (ASI), etc.
• Besides these surveys, NSSO collects data on rural and urban prices and plays a significant role in the improvement of crop statistics through supervision of the area enumeration and crop estimation surveys of the State agencies.
• It also maintains a frame of urban area units for use in sample surveys in urban areas.

The NSSO has four Divisions:

• Survey Design and Research Division (SDRD): This Division, located at Kolkata, is responsible for the technical planning of surveys, formulation of concepts and definitions, sampling design, designing of inquiry schedules, drawing up of tabulation plans, and analysis and presentation of survey results.
• Field Operations Division (FOD): The Division, with its headquarters at Delhi/Faridabad, is responsible for the collection of primary data for the surveys undertaken by NSS.
• Data Processing Division (DPD): The Division, with its headquarters at Kolkata is responsible for sample selection, software development, processing, validation and tabulation of the data collected through surveys.
• Survey Coordination Division (SCD): This Division, located in New Delhi, coordinates all the activities of different Divisions of NSS.
  • It also brings out the bi-annual journal of NSS, titled “Sarvekshana”, and organizes National Seminars on the results of various Socio-economic surveys undertaken by NSS.

Key Insights From the 2022-23 Survey:

• Evolution of Food Expenditure: Over the past two decades, there has been a notable shift in spending patterns on food in India.
  • Between 1999-2000 and 2022-23, both urban and rural households witnessed a gradual decline in the share of expenditure allocated to food.
  • This period marks the first instance where food expenditure has dropped to below 50% in rural India and below 40% in urban India.
• Changing Dietary Preferences: The composition of food consumption has also undergone significant changes.
  • Cereals and pulses have seen a reduction in their share of overall food consumption expenditure, while spending on milk has surged, surpassing that on cereals and pulses combined.
  • In a noteworthy shift, the average Indian now spends more on fruits and vegetables than on food grains.
  • Furthermore, expenditure on animal proteins like eggs, fish, and meat has shown a growing trend, indicating a preference for animal-based proteins over plant-based ones.
• Rise in Processed Food Consumption: There has been an observed increase in the share of expenditure allocated to processed foods, beverages, and purchased cooked meals.
  • This trend aligns with the Engel Curve hypothesis, suggesting that as incomes rise, households allocate a smaller proportion of their spending to food and tend to prefer superior items over inferior ones.
• Closing Rural-Urban Consumption Gap: Consumption growth in rural areas has outpaced that in urban areas, leading to a narrowing of the rural-urban consumption divide.
  • If this trend continues, it could potentially lead to parity in urban and rural incomes and consumption patterns in the future.
• Challenges in Inflation Calculation: The findings of the latest Household Consumption Expenditure (HCE) Survey underscore the need to review the inflation basket.
  • The current Consumer Price Index (CPI)-based inflation calculation, established in 2012, may not accurately reflect contemporary consumption patterns.
  • For instance, the disparity between the weightage assigned to cereals in the CPI basket and actual expenditure on cereals by rural households highlights the need for recalibration.
• Insights on Poverty Reduction: According to NITI Aayog CEO B V R Subrahmanyam, the latest survey indicates a reduction in poverty to five per cent nationwide.
  • Both rural and urban areas are witnessing increased prosperity, as evidenced by rising per capita monthly expenditure.
• Demand for Legal Guarantee to MSP: While there is a demand for a legal guarantee to Minimum Support Price (MSP) for 23 crops, including food grains and sugarcane, the survey data suggests that the growth in the farm sector is being primarily driven by livestock, fisheries, and horticulture crops.
  • This poses a pertinent question regarding the promotion of production: should the focus be on crops outside the MSP purview, such as milk, fish, poultry products, fruits, and vegetables, given their growing consumption trends?