Why is it in the News?

Indian space startup Agnikul Cosmos on Thursday successfully launched its first sub-orbital test vehicle powered by the world’s first single-piece 3D-printed rocket engine, after calling off its launch at least four times previously.

What is Agnibaan - SOrTeD?

• Agnibaan SOrTeD is a sub-orbital technological demonstrator of the Agnibaan launch vehicle, manufactured by Indian space startup Agnikul Cosmos.
  • A sub-orbital launch reaches outer space but does not complete an orbit around Earth, intersecting the Earth's atmosphere or surface without becoming an artificial satellite or reaching escape velocity.
• This marks Agnikul’s fifth launch attempt since March 22. With this launch, AgniKul became the second private company to achieve a rocket launch in India, following Skyroot's successful flight in 2022.

Features:

• It is a customizable, two-stage launch vehicle capable of carrying up to 300 kg into an orbit approximately 700 km above Earth.
• Semi-Cryogenic Engine: Utilizes a combination of liquid and gaseous propellants, operating at temperatures higher than cryogenic engines but lower than traditional liquid rocket engines.
  • Uses refined kerosene, which is lighter and can be stored at normal temperatures, allowing more propellant to be carried. When combined with liquid oxygen, kerosene provides higher thrust.
• The test flight aims to demonstrate in-house, homegrown technologies, gather crucial flight data, and ensure the optimal functioning of systems for AgniKul's orbital launch vehicle, Agnibaan.
• The rocket is designed for accessing both low and high-inclination orbits and is completely mobile, enabling launches from more than 10 ports.

Agnibaan Acheivments:

• World’s First 3D-Printed Engine: Agnibaan is the first rocket to use a 3D-printed engine.
• First Semi-Cryogenic Engine-Powered Rocket Launch: Pioneering the use of semi-cryogenic engines in rocket launches.
• India’s First Private Launchpad Rocket Launch: The first Indian rocket launch conducted from a private launchpad.
• Unique Engine Configuration: Powered by the only engine in India that uses both gas and liquid fuel (liquid oxygen/kerosene).

Significance:

• Typically, rocket engine parts are manufactured separately and assembled later.
• The 3D-printed manufacturing process is expected to lower launch costs and reduce vehicle assembly time, offering affordable launch services for small satellites.

About 3D Printing:

• 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, creates three-dimensional objects from digital models by adding material layer by layer.
• This process, which uses materials like plastic, composites, or bio-materials, allows for efficient and customized production, contrasting with traditional subtractive manufacturing methods.

Notable Examples of 3D Printing:

• Industry Applications: 3D printing is widely used in industries such as healthcare, automotive, and aerospace.
• Aerospace: In May, Relativity Space launched a test rocket made entirely from 3D-printed parts, standing 100 feet tall and 7.5 feet wide.
  • However, the rocket experienced a failure shortly after takeoff.
• Healthcare: During the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, 3D printers were utilized to produce essential medical equipment, including swabs, face shields, masks, and parts for ventilators.

Why is it in the News?

Large parts of the country are witnessing a searing and longer-than-usual heatwave, with record-breaking day temperatures.

What is an Urban Heat Island?

• An urban heat island occurs when a city experiences much warmer temperatures than nearby rural areas.
• The difference in temperature between urban and less-developed rural areas has to do with how well the surfaces in each environment absorb and hold heat.

What is the Urban Heat Island Effect?

• Structures made of concrete — buildings, pavements, roads, and other infrastructure — absorb and re-emit the sun’s heat more than natural features like trees and water bodies.
• Cities, where these structures are concentrated, and greenery is limited, thus become “islands” of higher temperature compared to surrounding, greener, areas.
• This is called the urban heat island effect. And since heat is trapped in built-up structures, greater urbanisation has a direct correlation with the rise in night temperatures.

How do humidity and warm nights impact the human body?

• The rise in temperatures, humidity, and warmer nights together make the summer more deadly for human beings.
• Humans regulate their body temperatures by sweating, the evaporation of sweat from the skin cools our bodies.
• However high humidity prevents this from happening, which can take a toll on the body.
• Reacting to heat, “the heart starts pumping more blood to our skin.
  • This activates the sweat glands which help regulate body temperature.
  • But as a result of sweating, other organs get less blood flow.
• In humid conditions, the body continues to sweat with little avail.
• This not only leads to dehydration and salt imbalances but also takes a toll on organs due to reduced blood flow.
  • And it leads to the body overheating as its temperature-regulation mechanism is not working.
• If the temperatures are too high, the cellular processes in the brain also get affected.
  • This can initially lead to fainting, and in more serious cases, effects such as heat stroke and organ malfunction.

At the very basic level, more humidity and warmer nights do not allow our bodies to rest and recuperate”.

Why is it in the News?

At least 36 people were killed in heavy rains and landslides in four northeastern states on Tuesday under the impact of Cyclone Remal while normal life came to a grinding halt in all the eight states of the region with road and rail links affected.

What are Landslides?

• Landslides in India are one of the major hydro-geological hazards affecting large parts of the landmass of the country.
• It refers to the gravitational movements of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
• Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity.
• As per a report from the Geological Survey of India (GSI), 13% of the total land area in India is prone to landslides.
• This covers almost all the hilly regions in the country.
• About 0.18 million square km, or 42% of this vulnerable area is in the Northeastern region, where the terrain is mostly hilly.

What Causes a Landslide in India?

• Deforestation: Removal of trees reduces the binding properties of soil and rocks. This enables the water to seep into the sub-surface, making the topsoil vulnerable. 
  • For example, the Himalayan region has become more vulnerable to landslides due to the indiscriminate cutting of trees.
• Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation is common in hilly regions and Northeast areas.  Every year, residents burn the forests for cultivation purposes.
  • However, this deteriorates the quality of topsoil, causing erosion during heavy rainfall. This makes such regions more vulnerable to landslides.
• Heavy Rainfall and Earthquakes: Heavy rainfall and earthquakes often cause landslides.
  • For example, heavy rain caused landslides in Talai village of Maharashtra in 2021.
• Mining: Human activities like mining or quarrying remove the vegetation cover and soil gravel. This lowers the groundwater retention capacity. Also, it increases the risk of flooding.
  • Therefore, landslides occur due to loose debris or excess floods during an earthquake and heavy rainfall, respectively.
• Urbanisation: Intensive urbanisation and urbanization activities such as establishing commercial housing projects and road construction reduce the vegetation cover which leads to an increasing frequency of landslides.

What Are the Different Types of Landslides?

Landslides in India are divided into four categories:

• Topples: This occurs due to fractures in rocks. It causes tilting for gravitational pull without collapsing.
• Falls: This involves the collapse of rocks or debris from a cliff or slope. It results in the collection of debris at the base of a hill.
• Spread: It occurs in gentle slopes where soft debris or other materials are widely available.
• Slides: It occurs when debris, rocks or soil slide through a slope.

What Are the Impacts of Landslides in India?

• Mud, debris and rocks slide from the slope during landslides.
  • This restricts human movement and creates a traffic barrier on highways and railway lines.
• Loss of human lives is one of the severe effects.
  • Landslide is the primary factor behind the Joshimath sinking crisis which led to mass evacuation in January 2023.
• It damages houses, roads and buildings.
  • This further creates a financial burden for rebuilding infrastructure to rehabilitate the masses.
• The debris sliding down from slopes blocks the river channel fully or partially.
  • This makes it difficult for locals to get the water supply.
• Landslides also increase the risk of floods. This is because the debris increases the river sediment.
  • As a result, irregular course rivers become frequent, resulting in floods.

What Are the Measures Required to Prevent Landslides?

• An increase in forest cover is a must in community lands to reduce the hazard of landslides.
• People must store the excess water in catchment areas.
  • It will reduce the effect of flash floods and also recharge groundwater levels.
• People must restrict the grazing of their animals.
• Reduce the urbanisation activities such as building dams or other commercial projects.

Implementation of public awareness regarding preventive measures during landslides and other hazard management is necessary.

Why is it in the News?

After analysing the archived data from the space agency’s Magellan mission, scientists suggest that Venus, the almost Earth-sized planet was volcanically active between 1990 and 1992.

What is the Magellan Mission?

• NASA's Magellan mission to Venus was one of the most successful deep space missions launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida in the year 1989.
• It was the first spacecraft to image the entire surface of Venus and made several discoveries about the planet.
• Magellan burned up about 10 hours after being commanded to plunge into the Venusian atmosphere.
• Magellan's primary mission was to use a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) to create detailed maps of the surface of Venus.
  • The SAR allowed Magellan to penetrate a thick cloud layer which made it challenging to study Venus from Earth.
• By mapping the planet's surface, scientists aimed to investigate the planet's geology and landforms, including its vast plains, steep mountains, and impact craters.
• Magellan was also sent to measure the planet's gravity and magnetic fields.
• This information was considered important to NASA scientists as it would provide more information about the planet's interior structure and composition.
• Because Venus is a planet close to Earth that compares in size and composition, mapping and studying Venus was considered an important mission as it added to understanding the evolution and geology of rocky planets like Earth.

What is the Magellan Spacecraft?

• The Magellan spacecraft was a space probe launched into space on May 4, 1989, by NASA on the Space Shuttle Atlantis.
• NASA named Magellan after the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who was the first documented person to circumnavigate the Earth.
• The Magellan probe aimed to map the planet Venus and collect data about its atmosphere and physical characteristics.
• Venus is the second planet from the sun in the Milky Way solar system and is, along with Mercury, one of two planets that orbit between Earth and the sun.
• Known for being the first spacecraft to map the surface of Venus, Magellan remained in Venus' orbit for four years before being burned up in its atmosphere in October 1994.

What does the study reveal?

• The study identified a 2.2 square kilometre volcanic vent associated with Maat Mons, the second-highest volcano on Venus, located in the Atla Regio near the planet's equator.
• The vent showed signs of drained lava, and the radar images indicated that it had doubled in size over eight months, with the lava lake seeming to have reached the rim. These changes suggested that the vent had been actively erupting and spewing lava.

This discovery provides new insights into the geology and activity of Venus and highlights the importance of studying the planet's surface features to better understand its history and evolution.

Why is it in the News?

The southwest monsoon is progressing normally, and conditions are suitable for its onset on the Kerala coast in the next five days, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) said on Monday (May 27).

What does the ‘onset of monsoon’ Mean?

• The onset of the monsoon over Kerala marks the beginning of the four-month, June-September southwest monsoon season over India, which brings more than 70% of the country’s annual rainfall.
• The onset of the monsoon is a significant day in India’s economic calendar.
• According to the IMD, the onset of the monsoon marks a crucial transition in the large-scale atmospheric and ocean circulations in the Indo-Pacific region, and the Department announces it only after certain defined and measurable parameters, adopted in 2016, are met.

Onset & Advance of Monsoon:

• Broadly, the IMD checks for the consistency of rainfall over a defined geography, its intensity, and wind speed.
• Rainfall: The IMD declares the onset of the monsoon if at least 60% of 14 designated meteorological stations in Kerala and Lakshadweep record at least 2.5 mm of rain for two consecutive days at any time after May 10. In such a situation, the onset over Kerala is declared on the second day, provided specific wind and temperature criteria are also fulfilled.
  • The 14 enlisted stations are Minicoy, Amini, Thiruvananthapuram, Punalur, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, Thalassery, Kannur, Kasaragod, and Mangaluru.
• Wind field: The depth of westerlies, prevailing winds that blow from the west at midlatitudes — should be up to 600 hectopascals (1 hPa is equal to 1 millibar of pressure) in the area bound by the equator to 10ºN latitude and from longitude 55ºE to 80ºE.
  • The zonal wind speed over the area bound by 5-10ºN latitude and 70-80ºE longitude should be of the order of 15-20 knots (28-37 kph) at 925 hPa.
• Heat: According to IMD, the INSAT-derived Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) value (a measure of the energy emitted to space by the Earth’s surface, oceans, and atmosphere) should be below 200 watts per sq m (wm2) in the box confined by 5-10ºN latitude and 70-75ºE latitude.
• Northern Limit of Monsoon (NLM): Southwest monsoon normally sets in over Kerala around 1st June.
  • It advances northwards, usually in surges, and covers the entire country around the 15th of July.
  • The NLM is the northernmost limit of monsoon up to which it has advanced on any given day.

In general, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands start receiving monsoon rainfall between May 15 and May 20 every year, and it usually starts raining along the Kerala coast in the last week of May.

Why is it in the News?

To address its long-standing economic instability, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ) has launched a new gold-backed currency called the ZiG, short for Zimbabwe Gold, replacing the Zimbabwean dollar on April 5, 2024.

What is a ZiG Currency?

• Zimbabwe Gold, or ZIG, is the world's newest currency that was introduced by Zimbabwe to replace the Zimbabwe dollar in April.
• It is backed by the country's gold reserves and was launched in an effort to reduce currency instability and hyperinflation.
• It is the sixth currency Zimbabwe has used since the 2009 collapse of the Zimbabwe dollar amid hyperinflation of 5 billion per cent.

Features of ZiG currency:

• Gold-Backed: The ZiG is unique as it is backed by gold reserves, ensuring its value is supported by the physical gold held by the government.
• Denominations: ZiG notes and coins are issued in denominations of 1ZiG, 2ZiG, 5ZiG, 10ZiG, 20ZiG, 50ZiG, 100ZiG, and 200ZiG. This gold backing aims to provide stability and prevent currency devaluation.

Reasons for Launching a New Currency:

• High Inflation: Zimbabwe has struggled with extreme inflation, with rates exceeding 500% in recent years.
• Currency Instability: The Zimbabwean dollar, introduced in 1980, lost its value due to hyperinflation. The country's reliance on various foreign currencies, mainly the US dollar, has limited economic control.
• Historical Collapse: The collapse of the Zimbabwean dollar in 2009, with hyperinflation peaking at 5 billion per cent, is one of the worst currency crashes in history.

Economic Control: Converting the previous national currency, the Zimbabwe dollar, into ZiGs is intended to simplify monetary matters and provide certainty and predictability in the financial system.

Why is it in the News?

Health officials from the 194 member states of the World Health Organization hope next week to complete more than two years of negotiations on new rules for responding to pandemics when they gather in Geneva.

What is the Pandemic Treaty?

• The "Pandemic Treaty" or "Pandemic Accord" refers to an ongoing process at the World Health Organization (WHO) to negotiate an international agreement or convention on pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response.
• The idea was proposed in late 2020 amid the COVID-19 pandemic to strengthen global coordination and solidarity in addressing future pandemic threats.
• The WHO already has binding rules known as the International Health Regulations (2005) which set out countries’ obligations where public health events have the potential to cross national borders.
  • These include advising the WHO immediately of a health emergency and measures on trade and travel.
  • Adopted after the 2002/3 SARS outbreak, these regulations are still seen as functional for regional epidemics such as Ebola but inadequate for a global pandemic.

Key points about the proposed Pandemic Treaty/Agreement:

• Objective: To establish a global framework and rules to ensure better cooperation, data sharing, and coordinated response during future pandemics.
• Legal Status: It would be a legally binding international instrument, like a treaty or convention, requiring ratification by WHO member states.
• Core Elements: Likely to include provisions on equitable access to countermeasures, strengthening health systems, information sharing, One Health approach (human-animal-environment interface), and funding mechanisms.
• Negotiation Process: In December 2021, the World Health Assembly established an intergovernmental negotiating body to draft and negotiate the instrument through a member-state-led process.
• The goal is to learn from COVID-19 experiences and create a binding global framework that facilitates a more coherent, better-coordinated international response to potential future pandemic threats.

How will the Global Health Rules change?

• The updates to the International Health Regulations (IHR) include:
  • A new alert system to provide different risk assessments for future outbreaks, addressing criticisms that the current system delayed the COVID-19 response.
  • Introducing an intermediary alert stage called “early action alert,” in addition to the existing Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC).
  • Considering a “pandemic emergency” designation for the most severe health threats, filling a gap in the current system which does not use the term "pandemic."
  • Strengthening state obligations to inform the WHO of public health events, changing the language from “may” to “should.”

How Do Countries View the Pact?

• Negotiations have been marked by significant differences between wealthy and poor countries.
• The talks missed a key May 10 deadline, nearly collapsing and prompting WHO Director-General Tedros to call an emergency meeting to boost morale. Contentious issues include:
  • The sharing of drugs and vaccines.
  • Financing, with debates over setting up a dedicated fund versus using existing resources like the World Bank’s $1 billion pandemic fund.
  • Political pressure, particularly from right-wing groups and politicians concerned about sovereignty, which the WHO denies.

What Happens Next?

• The new IHR rules and the pandemic accord are intended to complement each other, but opinions vary on whether one can exist without the other.
• Sources indicate that IHR negotiations are more advanced and likely to pass, with changes taking effect automatically after 12 months unless countries opt-out.
• In contrast, the pandemic treaty requires ratification, potentially taking years.

Why is it in the News?

The historical Saalu Mantap (pillar line), located on the premises of the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, collapsed after heavy rain lashed the region on Tuesday night.

What is the Historical Significance of Virupaksha Temple?

• The Virupaksha temple gained prominence and underwent extensive expansion in the 14th century during the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 to 1646).
  • Founded by Harihara I of the Sangama dynasty, the Vijayanagara Empire expanded from a strategic position on the banks of the Tungabhadra River to become one of the most powerful kingdoms of its time.
• The temple was built by Lakkan Dandesha, a nayaka (chieftain) under the ruler Deva Raya II, also known as Prauda Deva Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• The temple flourished under the patronage of the Vijayanagara rulers, who were great builders and patrons of art.
  • It became a vital centre for the religious and cultural activities of its time.
• It is a prime example of Dravidian temple architecture, characterised by its grand gopurams (towering gateways), the shikhara towering over the sanctum sanctorum, its intricate carvings and pillared halls.
• Richly adorned with carvings and sculptures, the gopuram depicts various deities, mythological scenes and animals.
• The sanctum sanctorum houses the Shiva lingam, the main object of worship.
• Historians say all temples had pavilions where traders sold articles, such as those used in worship.
  • Sometimes devotees visiting the temple also camped under the pavilions.
• With several other temples and structures located there, Hampi was the empire’s capital city and stands today as evidence of what is known as the last ‘great Hindu empire’ of South India.
• UNESCO also recognised its uniqueness and categorised the Group of Monuments at Hampi as a World Heritage Site.

Why is it in the News?

Last month, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) forecasted above-normal rain in the upcoming monsoon season in India, with “favourable” La Nina conditions expected to set in by August-September.

What are El Niño and La Nina?

• El Niño (meaning “little boy” in Spanish) and La Nina (meaning “little girl” in Spanish) are climate phenomena that are a result of ocean-atmosphere interactions, which impact the temperature of waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean which affects global weather.
• The Earth’s east-west rotation causes all winds blowing between 30 degrees to the north and south of the equator to slant in their trajectory.
  • As a result, winds in the region flow towards a southwesterly direction in the northern hemisphere and a northwesterly direction in the southern hemisphere which is known as the Coriolis Effect.
• Due to this, winds in this belt (called trade winds) blow westwards on either side of the equator.
  • Under normal ocean conditions, these trade winds travel westwards along the equator from South America towards Asia.
  • Wind movement over the ocean results in a phenomenon called upwelling, where cold water beneath the ocean surface rises and displaces the warm surface waters.
• At times, the weak trade winds get pushed back towards South America and there is no upwelling.
  • Thus, warmer-than-usual sea surface temperatures are recorded along the equatorial Pacific Ocean, and this is known as the emergence of El Niño conditions.
• Conversely, during La Nina, strong trade winds push warm water towards Asia.
  • Greater upwelling gives rise to cold and nutrient-rich water towards South America.
  • Thus, climatologically, El Niño and La Nina are opposite phases of what is collectively called the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
  • It also includes a third neutral phase.
• El Niño events are far more frequent than La Nina ones.
  • Once every two to seven years, neutral ENSO conditions get interrupted by either El Niño or La Nina.
  • Recently, La Nina conditions prevailed between 2020 and 2023.

How could the incoming La Nina impact global weather?

• La Niña, driven by the cooling of ocean waters due to the ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) cycle, can significantly influence global weather patterns.
• The air circulation loop in the region, affected by these temperature changes, impacts precipitation levels in neighbouring areas and can alter the Indian monsoon.
• Currently, the El Niño event that began in June last year has significantly weakened.
• Neutral ENSO conditions are expected to be established by June.
• Following this, La Niña conditions are anticipated to emerge, with its effects likely becoming apparent from August.

La Nina’s Impact on India:

• With above normal rain forecast, the seasonal rainfall is expected to be 106 per cent of the Long Period Average (LPA), which is 880mm (1971-2020 average).
• Except in east and northeast India, all remaining regions are expected to receive normal or above-seasonal rainfall.
  • Heavy rains could result in some regions witnessing riverine and urban flooding, mudslides, landslides and cloudbursts.
• East and northeast India region, during La Nina years, receive below average seasonal rainfall.
  • Therefore, there may be a shortfall in water reserves there this year.
• During La Nina years, incidents of thunderstorms generally increase.
  • “The east and northern India regions could experience thunderstorms accompanied by lightning.
• With increased farming activities undertaken during the July and August rainy months, which coincides with the season’s enhanced lightning and thunderstorms, there is a high risk of fatalities in these regions.
• In addition to ENSO, there are other parameters that can impact the monsoon.
• However, in a La Nina year, a deficit monsoon over India can be easily ruled out.

La Nina’s Impact on the World:

• Similar to India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia and their neighbouring countries receive good rainfall during a La Nina year.
  • This year, Indonesia has already witnessed floods.
• On the other hand, droughts are common in southern regions of North America, where winters become warmer than usual.
  • Canada and the northwestern coast of the United States see heavy rainfall and flooding.
  • Southern Africa receives higher than usual rainfall, whereas eastern regions of the continent suffer below-average rainfall.
• ENSO has a huge impact on hurricane activity over the Atlantic Ocean.
• During a La Nina year, the hurricane activity here increases.
  • For instance, the Atlantic Ocean churned out a record 30 hurricanes during the La Nina year 2021.

Is Climate Change Affecting ENSO?

• Over India, El Niño is known to suppress the southwest monsoon rainfall and drive higher temperatures and intense heat waves, like the present summer season.
• In the past, monsoon seasons during years following an El Niño were 1982-1983 and 1987-1988, with both 1983 and 1988 recording bountiful rainfall.
  • At present too, a similar situation could play out.
• The 2020-2023 period witnessed the longest La Nina event of the century.
• Thereafter, ENSO neutral conditions developed, which soon gave way to El Niño by June 2023 which has been weakening since December last year.
• Scientists say that climate change is set to impact the ENSO cycle.
• Many studies suggest that global warming tends to change the mean oceanic conditions over the Pacific Ocean and trigger more El Niño events.
• The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has also said that climate change is likely to affect the intensity and frequency of extreme weather and climate events linked to El Niño and La Nina.

Why is it in the News?

Known as ‘AI agents’, GPT-4o and Project Astra have been touted as far superior to conventional voice assistants such as Alexa, Siri, and Google Assistant.

What are AI Agents?

• AI agents are sophisticated AI systems that can engage in real-time, multi-modal (text, image, or voice) interactions with humans.
• Unlike conventional language models, which solely work on text-based inputs and outputs, AI agents can process and respond to a wide variety of inputs including voice, images, and even input from their surroundings.
• AI agents are designed to perceive their environment and take actions in order to achieve specific goals.
  • They perceive their environment through sensors, process the information using algorithms or models, and then take actions using actuators or other means.
• AI agents can range from simple systems that follow predefined rules to complex, autonomous entities that learn and adapt based on their experiences.
• They're utilized in various fields, including robotics, gaming, virtual assistants, autonomous vehicles, and more.
• These agents can be reactive (responding directly to stimuli), deliberative (planning and making decisions), or even have learning capabilities (adapting their behaviour based on data and experiences).

How are they Different From Large Language Models?

• While large language models (LLMs) like GPT-3 and GPT-4 have the ability only to generate human-like text, AI agents make interactions more natural and immersive with the help of voice, vision, and environmental sensors.
  • Unlike LLMs, AI agents are designed for instantaneous, real-time conversations with responses much similar to humans.
• LLMs lack contextual awareness, while AI agents can understand and learn from the context of interactions, allowing them to provide more relevant and personalised responses.
• Also, language models do not have any autonomy since they only generate text output.
• AI agents, however, can perform complex tasks autonomously such as coding, data analysis, etc.
• When integrated with robotic systems, AI agents can even perform physical actions.

What are the Potential Uses of AI Agents?

• AI agents can serve as intelligent and highly capable assistants.
• They are capable of handling an array of tasks, from offering personalised recommendations to scheduling appointments.
• AI agents can be ideal for customer service as they can offer seamless natural interactions, and resolve queries instantly without actually the need for human interventions.
• In the field of education and training, AI agents can act as personal tutors, customise themselves based on a student’s learning styles, and may even offer a tailored set of instructions.
• In healthcare, they could assist medical professionals by providing real-time analysis, diagnostic support, and even monitoring patients.

Risks and Challenges Associated With AI Agents:

• While AI agents showcase immense potential for the future, they are not without risks.
• Privacy and security are a key area of concern as AI agents gain access to more personal data and environmental information.
• Just like any AI model, AI agents can carry forward biases from their training data or algorithms, leading to harmful outcomes.

As these systems become more common, appropriate regulations and governance frameworks should be laid out to ensure their responsible deployment.

Why is it in the News?

For the second year in a row, an organisation affiliated with the UN human rights office has deferred accreditation for India’s human rights body, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC).

What are the Paris Principles?

• The Paris Principles, formally Principles Relating to the Status of National Human Rights Institutions, which were adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 20, 1993, set out minimum standards that NHRIs must meet in order to be considered credible and to operate effectively.
• The Paris Principles lay down six main criteria to determine which NHRIs are functioning effectively and would receive accreditation from GANHRI.
• They are
  •  broad mandate based on universal human rights norms and standards
  •  autonomy from the government
  •  independence guaranteed by the statute or Constitution
  •  pluralism, including membership that broadly reflects their society
  •  adequate resources and
  •  adequate powers of investigation
• These Principles also say that NHRIs should be equipped to receive complaints and cases brought by individuals, third parties, NGOs, trade unions, or other organisations representative of professionals such as lawyers and journalists.

Accreditation:

• Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI), which represents about 120 national human rights institutions, is responsible for reviewing and accrediting these institutions in compliance with the Paris Principles every five years.
• GANHRI acts through its Subcommittee on Accreditation (SCA), which categorises member NHRIs into two groups, ‘A’ and ‘B’. As of November 29, 2023, 120 NHRIs were accredited by GANHRI, 88 of which were given an ‘A’ rank, indicating full compliance with the Paris Principles; the remaining 32 were put under ‘B’, indicating partial compliance.

 Why has India’s Accreditation Been Put on Hold?

• India’s accreditation status was put on hold after the Sub-Committee on Accreditation (SCA) meeting on May 1 in Geneva.
  • The SCA, which meets twice a year, scrutinizes each country’s human rights institution.
• The May 1 meeting, chaired by New Zealand with participation from South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Spain, highlighted several concerns about the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India.
• Issues raised include a lack of transparency in NHRC appointments, conflicts of interest with police overseeing investigations, and no minority or female representation on the panel.
• Additionally, nine human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, expressed concerns about India’s human rights record, citing increasing restrictions on civic space and discrimination against minorities.
• UN human rights experts also highlighted “attacks on minorities, media, and civil society” in India.

What Happens if India Loses Accreditation?

• If India loses its 'A' status accreditation, its National Human Rights Institution (NHRI) will face significant limitations. With 'A' status, NHRIs can participate in the UN Human Rights Council, its subsidiary bodies, and some UNGA bodies and mechanisms, and hold full membership in the Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI) with voting and governance rights.
• With 'B' status, NHRIs can attend GANHRI meetings but cannot vote or hold governance positions. Without proper accreditation, India’s NHRC cannot represent the country at the UN Human Rights Council, vote, or hold governance roles.
• India’s review has been deferred, and a final decision is yet to be made.

What is India’s Record of Accreditation with GANHRI?

• India’s National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) was established in 1993 and first accredited by the Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI) in 1999.
• It achieved 'A' status in 2006 and retained it in 2011.
  • However, in 2016, accreditation was deferred due to issues like the appointment of political representatives and lack of gender balance and pluralism in the NHRC staff.
  • Despite these concerns, the NHRC regained 'A' status in 2017.
• In 2023, the Sub-Committee on Accreditation (SCA) withheld India’s accreditation again, citing six reasons, including the NHRC’s inability to operate without government interference and the presence of too many government officials and individuals affiliated with the ruling party in the commission.

Why is it in the News?

An independent inquiry report on the UK’s contaminated blood scandal, to be published Monday (May 20), indicates Britain may pay over 10 billion pounds ($12.70 billion) in compensation to thousands infected with HIV or hepatitis.

What is the Contaminated Blood Scandal?

• During the 1970s and 1980s, thousands of people who had the blood-clotting disorder haemophilia were given blood donated or sold by people who were infected with the HIV virus and hepatitis.
  • Tainted blood was also given to people who needed blood transfusions after childbirth or surgery.
• In the early 1970s, the NHS (Britain’s National Health Service) started using a new treatment for haemophilia called Factor VIII.
  • This was a processed pharmaceutical product that was created by pooling plasma from many donors.
  • Factor VIII was considered to be a “wonder drug” for patients with classical haemophilia and Von Willebrand Syndrome (which is a bleeding disorder in which the patient’s blood cannot clot fully), more efficient and convenient than earlier treatments.
• The nature of Factor VIII was such that even one infected donor could compromise the entire batch of the protein.
• The product used by the NHS was imported from the United States, where a large volume of donated plasma at the time came from prisoners and users of intravenous drugs who were paid for their blood.
• The inquiry report has estimated that more than 30,000 people were infected with HIV, hepatitis C or, as in the case of 1,250 haemophiliacs, both.
• Most hepatitis C infections were seen in transfusion recipients, and as many as 380 children were infected with HIV.
• Nearly two-thirds of those who were infected with HIV later died of AIDS-related illnesses, and an unknown number transferred HIV to their partners.
• The report said that 2,400-5,000 recipients of blood developed hepatitis C, with the exact figure not known yet, as symptoms can show up years later.

How did the government react after the scandal was widely known?

• It was only after 1985 that all Factor VIII products were heat-treated to kill the HIV virus.
  • However, UK blood donations were not routinely screened for hepatitis C until 1991.
• Evidence provided to the inquiry suggests that the British government chose to turn a blind eye to the situation, mainly due to financial considerations.
  • Official documents from the 1990s revealed that due to cost concerns, the NHS did not pursue adequate testing or awareness campaigns, despite warnings in the mid-1970s about the risks of viral infections from US blood donations.
• As early as 1953, the World Health Organisation (WHO), had warned of the hepatitis risks associated with the mass pooling of plasma products.
  • It urged that dried plasma should be prepared from pools of between 10 to 20 donors to reduce the risk of contamination.
• In 1974, the UN agency warned Britain not to import blood from countries with a high prevalence of hepatitis, such as the US.
• Another warning of the risk of contracting HIV from blood products was issued in 1982.
• The following year, The Lancet and WHO said haemophiliacs should be told about the dangers of donated plasma.

Why is it in the News?

The World Health Organization (WHO) recently released its updated Bacterial Priority Pathogens List (BPPL) 2024.

What is the Bacterial Pathogens Priority List?

• The Bacterial Pathogens Priority List (BPPL) is a crucial tool in the global effort to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

Background:

• In 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) created the first BPPL to guide investment in the research and development (R&D) of new antibacterial treatments, listing 13 bacterial pathogens (phenotypes).
• The list was developed using the Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) method, a scientific approach that evaluates and ranks alternatives based on multiple criteria, ensuring systematic and transparent decision-making.
• The 2024 WHO BPPL expands to cover 24 pathogens across 15 families of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, categorizing them into critical, high, and medium priority groups to guide R&D and public health efforts.

Significance:

• The BPPL directs priorities for R&D and investment in AMR, highlighting the necessity for region-specific strategies to combat resistance effectively.
• It is aimed at developers of antibacterial medicines, academic and public research institutions, research funders, public-private partnerships involved in AMR R&D, and policymakers responsible for AMR policies and programs.

What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)?

• Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the ability of microorganisms to persist or grow in the presence of drugs designed to inhibit or kill them.
• These drugs, called antimicrobials, are used to treat infectious diseases caused by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoan parasites.
• When microorganisms become resistant to antimicrobials, standard treatments are often ineffective, and in some cases, no drugs provide effective therapy.
• Consequently, treatments fail and this increases illness and mortality in humans, animals and plants.
• For agriculture, this causes production losses, damages livelihoods and jeopardizes food security.
• Moreover, AMR can spread among different hosts and the environment, and antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms can contaminate the food chain.
• Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global threat of increasing concern to human and animal health.
• It also has implications for food safety, food security and the economic well-being of millions of farming households.

Why is it in the News?

NASA is set to launch the two small satellites of the PREFIRE mission from New Zealand on May 22 aimed at filling in critical gaps in data from Earth's polar regions.

What is the PREFIRE Mission?

• PREFIRE (Polar Radiant Energy in the Far-InfraRed Experiment) is a NASA mission that involves sending two tiny twin spacecraft, known as CubeSats, to the Earth's polar regions to gather data on the heat energy radiated out to space and its impact on our climate.
• PREFIRE consists of two, 6U CubeSats with a baseline mission length of 10 months.
• These shoebox-sized satellites will orbit at altitudes between 292 and 403 miles, crossing paths in the atmosphere.

Objectives:

• The mission will help close a gap in understanding how much of Earth’s heat is lost to space, especially from the Arctic and Antarctica.
• Analysis of PREFIRE’s measurements will inform climate and ice models, providing better projections of how a warming world will affect sea ice loss, ice sheet melt, and sea level rise.
• Improving climate models can ultimately help to provide more accurate projections on the impacts of storm severity and frequency, as well as coastal erosion and flooding.
• By studying the far-infrared radiation emitted from these regions, PREFIRE will help improve the accuracy of climate models, enhancing our understanding of phenomena such as Arctic warming, sea ice loss, and ice-sheet melting.

The mission will help in:

• Uncover the reasons behind the Arctic warming more than 2½ times faster than the global average since the 1970s.
• Provide scientists with a clearer understanding of how efficiently far-infrared heat is emitted by materials such as snow and sea ice, and how clouds affect the amount of far-infrared radiation that escapes to space.
• Enhance predictions about future changes in the heat exchange between Earth and space, and how these changes will impact phenomena like ice sheet melting, atmospheric temperatures, and global weather patterns.

How will the Satellites Work?

• The mission with cube satellites about the size of a shoebox will be launched aboard an Electron launch vehicle.
• It is equipped with technology proven on Mars and will measure a “little-studied portion” of the radiant energy emitted by Earth.
• Two satellites carrying a thermal infrared spectrometer will be in asynchronous near-polar orbits and will be passing over a given spot on Earth at different times. To maximize coverage, they will be overlapping every few hours near the poles.
• The instruments weighing less than 6 pounds (3 kilograms) each will make readings using a device called a thermocouple, similar to the sensors found in many household thermostats.

Why is it Important to Study the Polar Regions?

• According to NASA, Earth's climate balance hinges on the equilibrium between the heat energy the planet receives from the Sun and the amount it radiates back into space.
• The difference between incoming and outgoing energy determines Earth's temperature and climate.
• The polar regions are crucial in this balance.
• Changes in the polar regions can significantly impact global weather patterns.
• Extreme storms, flooding, coastal erosion – all of these phenomena are influenced by what’s happening in the Arctic and Antarctic.
• This underscores the importance of understanding polar dynamics to predict and mitigate global climate effects.

Why is it in the News?

With the cases of extortion and ‘digital arrest’ frauds on the rise, the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) working under the Union Ministry of Home Affairs issued an advisory asking the citizens to be alert about such frauds.

What is ‘Digital Arrest’?

• ‘Digital arrest’ is a new and innovative tactic employed by cybercriminals to defraud gullible victims and extort money.
• The modus operandi in this cybercrime method is that fraudsters pose as law enforcement officials such as police, Enforcement Directorate, and CBI, among others, and manipulate them into believing that they have committed some serious crime.
• The cyber fraudsters deceive the victim into believing that he or she has been put under ‘digital arrest’ and will be prosecuted if they do not pay the scamsters a huge amount of money.
• The fraudster often uses the tactic of instilling fear and a sense of urgency in the victims, ensuring they part with their money before realizing it's a scam.
• The cyber criminals often force the naive victims to self-arrest or self-quarantine themselves, by tricking them into believing that they have been put under ‘digital arrest’ and cannot leave their house unless they pay up.

Modus Operandi of Digital Arrest Scams:

• Initial Engagement: Fraudsters initiate contact with unsuspecting individuals through various digital communication channels, such as phone calls, WhatsApp, or Skype.
• Fear and Urgency Manipulation: The scammers employ psychological tactics to instil fear and a sense of urgency in their victims.
  • They present fabricated evidence and falsely claim that the victim is embroiled in criminal activities or is facing an imminent arrest warrant.
• Elaborate Scams: To enhance the legitimacy of their scheme, the scammers create elaborate setups, including simulated police stations, virtual interrogations, and video calls with individuals posing as senior police officers.
• Layered Interrogations: Victims are subjected to multiple rounds of “interrogations,” with the scammers assuming different roles, such as a “constable,” a “sub-inspector,” and finally a “DCP-level officer.”
  • This layered approach aims to convince victims of the gravity of the situation and increase their susceptibility to the scam.
• Financial Exploitation: Under the imminent threat of arrest, victims are coerced into transferring substantial sums of money into designated accounts.
  • The scammers deceitfully claim that these funds are necessary to clear the victim’s name or resolve the alleged criminal charges.

Actions Taken by the Centre:

• Intelligence agencies have determined that the incidents are part of a coordinated online economic crime network operated by transnational crime syndicates.
• The Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), overseen by the Ministry of Home Affairs, has collaborated with Microsoft to block over 1,000 Skype IDs associated with such illicit activities.
  • Additionally, efforts are underway to block SIM cards, mobile devices, and "mule" accounts utilized by cybercriminals.
• Money mules, also known as "smurfers," are individuals unwittingly used by fraudsters to launder stolen or illegal money through their bank accounts.
  • Following reports of such incidents, these individuals often become the focus of police investigations due to their involvement, as highlighted in a security advisory by HDFC Bank.
• The Home Ministry is collaborating with other ministries, their agencies, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), and various organizations to combat these criminal activities.
  • I4C is actively providing technical support and inputs to the police forces of states and union territories to identify and investigate cases.
  • I4C has leveraged its social media platform Cyberdost, along with its presence on platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, to disseminate infographics and videos aimed at raising awareness about cybercrime.
• Citizens are urged to remain vigilant and help spread awareness about cybercrime.
  • They are encouraged to report any such incidents promptly to the cybercrime helpline at 1930 or through the website http://www.cybercrime.gov.in.
  • Additionally, filing a complaint and notifying the local police is advised.

Why is it in the News?

India VIX, which is an indicator of the market’s expectation of volatility over the near term, surged past the 21 mark recently.

What is India VIX?

• India VIX is a volatility index computed by the NSE based on the order book of NIFTY Options.
• For this, the best bid-ask quotes of near and next-month NIFTY options contracts, which are traded on the F&O segment of NSE are used.
• India VIX indicates the investor’s perception of the market’s volatility in the near term i.e. it depicts the expected market volatility over the next 30 calendar days.
  • The higher the India VIX values, the higher the expected volatility and vice versa, as per NSE.
• ‘VIX’ is a trademark of the CBOE, and Standard & Poor’s has granted a license to NSE, with permission from the CBOE, to use such a mark in the name of the India VIX and for purposes relating to the India VIX.

What is the Volatility Index?

• The Volatility Index, VIX or the Fear Index, is a measure of the market’s expectation of volatility over the near term.
  • Volatility is often described as the ‘rate and magnitude of changes in prices’ and in finance often referred to as risk.
  • Usually, during periods of market volatility, the market moves steeply up or down and the volatility index tends to rise.
  • As volatility subsides, the Volatility Index declines.
• The Volatility Index is a measure of the amount by which an underlying index is expected to fluctuate in the near term, (calculated as annualised volatility, denoted in percentage e.g. 20 per cent) based on the order book of the underlying index options.
• The Chicago Board of Options Exchange (CBOE) was the first to introduce the volatility index for the US markets in 1993 based on S&P 100 Index option prices.
  • In 2003, the methodology was revised and the new volatility index was based on S&P 500 Index options.
• Since its inception, it has become an indicator of how market practitioners think about volatility.
•  Investors use it to gauge market volatility and base their investment decisions accordingly.

Why is it in the News?

Floods, cyclones, earthquakes and other disasters triggered over half a million internal displacements in India in 2023, according to Geneva-based Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC).

About Global Report on Internal Displacement 2024:

• The Global Report on Internal Displacement (GRID) 2024, published by the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) based in Geneva, Switzerland.
• It is the authoritative source for data and analysis on the state of internal displacement for the previous year.
• Each year, IDMC presents the validated estimates of internal displacements by conflict and disasters, and the total cumulative numbers of IDPs worldwide.
• The GRID also provides an overview of the year’s most significant internal displacement situations, highlighting potential measures to address the issue across the humanitarian, development, disaster risk reduction and climate change agendas.
• The 2024 Global Report on Internal Displacement (GRID) report presents the data and analysis behind the 75.9 million people living in internal displacement as of the end of 2023.
  • It is the ninth edition of the GRID and includes global and regional insights into the risk, scale and impacts of internal displacement.

Highlights of the GRID 2024:

• Rising Numbers of (IDPs): In 2023, the number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) reached 75.9 million, up from 71.1 million the previous year.
• Causes of Displacement: Disasters contributed to 7.7 million displacements, with earthquakes being responsible for one-fourth of these.
  • Conflict and violence led to 68.3 million displacements.
• High-Displacement Countries: Sudan, Syria, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Colombia, and Yemen account for almost half of the world's IDP population.
• Significant Increases: Sudan had the highest number of IDPs recorded for a single country in 2023, reaching 1 million.
  • The majority of new displacements occurred in Sudan, the Palestinian territories, and the DRC, accounting for nearly two-thirds of all cases.
• South Asia Displacement: Approximately 3 million people across South Asia experienced internal displacement due to conflict and violence, with 80% of them located in Afghanistan.
  • Manipur violence resulted in 67,000 displacements, marking the highest number of conflict and violence-related displacements in India since 2018.
• Impact of Natural Disasters: There was a notable decrease in internal displacement due to natural disasters in India in 2023, dropping from 2.5 million in 2022 to 528,000.

About Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC):

• Established in 1998, the IDMC is the leading source of information and analysis on internal displacement.
• It was created to address a significant gap in knowledge on global patterns and scales of internal displacement.
• IDMC defines internal displacement as the number of forced movements of people within their own country over a given year.
• The IDMC is a part of the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), an independent, non-governmental humanitarian organization.
• Primary Roles: The IDMC serves as a global monitor and advocate for evidence-based policy and action.
  • It aims to influence governments, UN agencies, donors, international organizations, and NGOs.
• As the official repository of data and analysis on internal displacement, the IDMC's GRID provides critical insights into the global internal displacement crisis and aids in developing informed solutions.

Why is it in the News?

According to the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Indian satellites did not suffer any major outages due to the multiple powerful earth-bound solar storms recently.

What is a Solar Storm?

• Solar storms are a normal part of our Sun's solar cycle.
• It occurs when the Sun emits huge bursts of energy in the form of solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
• These phenomena send a stream of electrical charges and magnetic fields toward the Earth at a speed of about three million miles per hour.
• When a solar storm strikes the Earth, it often produces a dazzling “northern lights" display in parts of the atmosphere that can be seen in areas close to the Arctic Circle.
• Solar storms start with a huge explosion on the Sun.
  • These explosions — called solar flares — can be about as powerful as billions of nuclear bombs!
• Solar flares usually go hand-in-hand with the release of huge streams of charged plasma that travel at millions of miles per hour.
• These streams are called coronal mass ejections, or CMEs.
• When CMEs hit the Earth, they can cause geomagnetic storms that disrupt satellites and electrical power grids.
  • For example, in 2017 two massive solar flares fired out from the surface of the Sun disrupted devices such as GPS navigation systems on Earth.

How often do solar storms happen?

• Scientists who study solar storms have discovered that the frequency of solar flares appears to follow an 11-year solar cycle.
• At times of peak activity, there could be several solar storms each day.
• At other times, there might be less than one solar storm per week.

What is the Impact of Solar Storm?

• It majorly interferes with several services, including GPS navigation, weather forecasting, communication, and other satellite-dependent services.
• Besides that, it also has a significant impact on satellite networks and communication.
• They can create geomagnetically induced currents (GICs), which can overload electrical systems and cause damage to transformers, issues with voltage regulation, and widespread power outages.
• Furthermore, because solar storms increase the amount of solar and cosmic radiation that reaches the top regions of Earth's atmosphere, they also pose health concerns to people, especially aircraft crew and passengers, especially on flights at high latitudes.
• These storms have the potential to disrupt infrastructure in near-Earth orbit and on Earth's surface, affecting communications, the electric power grid, navigation, radio, and satellite operations.

Why is it in the News?

Three Indian literary works, Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra, and Sah?dayaloka-Locana, were added to UNESCO’s Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional Register during the tenth meeting of the Memory of the World Committee for Asia and the Pacific (MOWCAP).

About Memory of the World Programme:

• The Memory of the World (MoW) Programme is an international initiative by UNESCO launched in 1992 aimed at preserving and recognizing the world's significant documentary heritage.
• The program's objective is to identify and protect important documents in a manner similar to how UNESCO's World Heritage Convention and World Heritage List recognize significant natural and cultural sites.

The Memory of the World Programme aims to:

• • Facilitating the preservation of documentary heritage, particularly in conflict-affected areas or regions impacted by natural disasters.
  • Enabling universal access to documentary heritage worldwide.
  • Enhancing public awareness about the significance of documentary heritage among the wider public.

Governance Body:

• The International Advisory Committee (IAC) serves as the main governing body for the MoW Programme, providing guidance to UNESCO on its planning and implementation.
• The IAC comprises 14 members appointed by UNESCO's Director-General, who are chosen for their expertise and authority in the field of documentary heritage.

Nominations for MoW:

• Nominations for inscription on the Asia Pacific Register are called every two years, alternating with the International Register.
  • In even-numbered years, nominations are accepted for the Asia Pacific Register.

India has three items included in the Memory of the World Register:

• Ramcharitmanas: Written by Tulasidas in the 16th century in the Awadhi dialect, this text holds immense cultural and literary significance in the regions of Lucknow, Prayagraj, and Ayodhya.
• Panchatantra: This ancient Indian collection of fables, originally written in Sanskrit, consists of five sections that revolve around specific principles.
  • It is widely believed to have been authored by Vishnu Sharma.
• Sah?day?loka-Locana: A Sanskrit commentary on the Dhvanyaloka, Sah?day?loka-Locana holds significant historical and literary value within India's rich cultural landscape.
• Through the Memory of the World Programme, UNESCO continues to protect and celebrate the diverse documentary heritage of humanity, ensuring its preservation and accessibility for future generations.

Why is it in the News?

OpenAI introduced its latest large language model (LLM) called GPT-4o recently, billing it as its fastest and most powerful AI model so far.

What is GPT-4o?

• GPT-4o (“o” stands for “Omni”) is a revolutionary AI model by OpenAI, which has been developed to enhance human-computer interactions.
• It lets users input any combination of text, audio, and image and receive responses in the same formats.
  • This makes GPT-4o a multimodal AI model – a significant leap from previous models.
• GPT-4o is like a digital personal assistant that can assist users with a variety of tasks.
• From real-time translations to reading a user’s face and having real-time spoken conversations, this new model is far ahead of its peers.
• GPT-4o is capable of interacting using text and vision, meaning it can view screenshots, photos, documents, or charts uploaded by users and have conversations about them.
• The new updated version of ChatGPT will also have updated memory capabilities and will learn from previous conversations with users.

What is the technology behind GPT-4o?

• LLMs are the backbone of AI chatbots. Large amounts of data are fed into these models to make them capable of learning things themselves.
• A large language model (LLM) is a computer program that learns and generates human-like language using a transformer architecture trained on vast text data.
• Large Language Models (LLMs) are foundational machine learning models that use deep learning algorithms to process and understand natural language.
• These models are trained on massive amounts of text data to learn patterns and entity relationships in the language.
• LLMs can perform many types of language tasks, such as translating languages, analyzing sentiments, chatbot conversations, and more.
• They can understand complex textual data, identify entities and relationships between them, and generate new text that is coherent and grammatically accurate.

What are GPT-4o’s limitations and safety concerns?

• GPT-4o is still in the early stages of exploring the potential of unified multimodal interaction, meaning certain features like audio outputs are initially accessible in a limited form only, with preset voices.
• Further development and updates are necessary to fully realise its potential in handling complex multimodal tasks seamlessly.
• Regarding safety, GPT-4o comes with built-in safety measures, including “filtered training data and refined model behaviour post-training”.

Why is it in the News?

The first recipient of a modified pig kidney transplant passed away recently, around two months after the surgery was carried out.

What is Xenotransplantation?

• Xenotransplantation is the transplantation of organs from different species, such as pigs to humans.
• It is a procedure that involves the transplantation, implantation or infusion into a human recipient of either (a) live cells, tissues, or organs from a nonhuman animal source, or (b) human body fluids, cells, tissues or organs that have had ex vivo contact with live nonhuman animal cells, tissues or organs.
• Essentially, it is the use of animal cells and organs to heal humans.
  • Xenotransplantation involving the heart was first tried in humans in the 1980s.
• The need for such a procedure was felt because of the significant gap between the number of transplants needed by patients and the availability of donor organs.

How Does Xenotransplantation Happen?

• The process of implanting a pig kidney into a recipient is akin to a standard transplant procedure, including the use of post-surgery immunosuppressant drugs.
• However, several critical additional steps are involved.
• Firstly, the chosen animal organ undergoes genetic modifications to prevent rejection by the human body.
• Using CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology, specific pig genes responsible for producing antibodies reactive to the human immune system are removed. Simultaneously, certain human genes are introduced to enhance the kidney's compatibility with human recipients.
• Even after the surgery, vigilant monitoring is essential to assess the body's response to the transplanted organ.

Why are pigs often used for xenotransplantation?

• Pig heart valves have been used to replace damaged valves in humans for over 50 years now.
• The pig’s anatomical and physiological parameters are similar to those of humans, and the breeding of pigs on farms is widespread and cost-effective.
• Also, many varieties of pig breeds are farmed, which provides an opportunity for the size of the harvested organs to be matched with the specific needs of the human recipient.

What are the Complications of Xenotransplantation?

• Rejection: Despite genetic modifications, the recipient's immune system may still recognize the transplanted organ as foreign and mount an immune response, leading to rejection.
• Infection: Xenotransplantation introduces the risk of transmitting infectious diseases from the donor animal to the recipient, including viruses and bacteria that may not typically affect humans.
• Immunological Challenges: The interaction between the recipient's immune system and the transplanted organ may trigger inflammatory responses, leading to complications such as inflammation and tissue damage.
• Ethical Concerns: Xenotransplantation raises ethical dilemmas related to animal welfare, genetic engineering, and the potential exploitation of animals for human benefit.
• Long-term Health Risks: The long-term effects of xenotransplantation on recipient health, including the development of chronic conditions and the risk of cancer, are still not fully understood and require further research.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully tested a liquid rocket engine made with the help of additive manufacturing technology — commonly known as 3D printing.

About PS4 Engine:

• ISRO has successfully conducted a long-duration test of its PS4 engine, re-designed for production using cutting-edge additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, also known in common parlance as 3D printing, and crafted in the Indian industry.
• The PS4 engine is the uppermost stage of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), comprising two Earth-storable liquid engines.
• The engine uses the earth-storable bipropellant combinations of Nitrogen Tetroxide as oxidiser and Mono Methyl Hydrazine as fuel in pressure-fed mode.
  • It was developed by ISRO's Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC).
    • LPSC redesigned the engine making it amenable to the Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM) concept thereby gaining considerable advantages.
• The manufacturing of the engine was done by the Indian industry partner, Wipro 3D, and the engine was hot tested at ISRO Propulsion Complex, Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu.

Why did ISRO use 3D printing to build the PS4 engine?

• The technology helped ISRO bring down the number of parts in the engine from 14 to a single piece.
• The space agency was able to eliminate 19 weld joints and saved 97% of the raw material.
• It also reduced the overall production time by 60%.

What is 3D Printing?

• 3D printing is a process that uses computer-created design to make three-dimensional objects layer by layer.
• It is an additive process, in which layers of a material like plastic, composites or bio-materials are built up to construct objects that range in shape, size, rigidity, and colour.

How is 3D printing done?

• To carry out 3D printing, one needs a personal computer connected to a 3D printer.
  • All they need to do is design a 3D model of the required object on computer-aid design (CAD) software and press ‘print’.
  • The 3D printer does the rest of the job.
• 3D printers construct the desired object by using a layering method, which is the complete opposite of the subtractive manufacturing processes.
• The (3D) printers act generally the same as a traditional inkjet printer in the direct 3D printing process, where a nozzle moves back and forth while dispensing a wax or plastic-like polymer layer-by-layer, waiting for that layer to dry, then adding the next level.
• It essentially adds hundreds or thousands of 2D prints on top of one another to make a three-dimensional object.
• Notably, these machines are capable of printing anything from ordinary objects like a ball or a spoon to complex moving parts like hinges and wheels.
• We can print a whole bike, handlebars, saddle, frame, wheels, brakes, pedals and chain–ready assembled, without using any tools.
•  It’s just a question of leaving gaps in the right places.

Why is it in the News?

The Inter-Services Organisations (Command, Control and Discipline) Act has been notified in a gazette and has been enforced with effect from May 10, the Defence Ministry said recently.

About Inter-Services Organisations (ISOs) (Command, Control, and Discipline) Act:

• During the Monsoon Session of 2023, both houses of Parliament passed a bill aimed at enhancing the operational efficiency and coordination of Inter-Services Organisations (ISOs).
• These organisations comprise personnel from the Army, Air Force, and Navy, such as joint training institutions like the National Defence Academy, National Defence College (NDC), Defence Services Staff College (DSSC), and the Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC).

Key Provisions of the ACT:

• Inter-Services Organisation Establishment: Existing Inter-Services Organisations will be considered constituted under the Act.
  • The central government may establish an Inter-Services Organisation comprising personnel from at least two of the following services: the Army, Navy, and Air Force.
• Control of Inter-Services Organisations: The Act empowers the Commander-in-Chief or Officer-in-Command of an Inter-Services Organisation to exercise command and control over its personnel.
  • They are responsible for maintaining discipline and ensuring the proper discharge of duties by service personnel.
  • Supervision of an Inter-Services Organisation will be under the purview of the central government.
• Commander-in-Chief Eligibility: Officers eligible for appointment as Commander-in-Chief or Officer-in-Command include:
  • A General Officer of the regular Army (rank above Brigadier),
  • A Flag Officer of the Navy (rank of Admiral of the Fleet, Admiral, Vice-Admiral, or Rear-Admiral), or
  • An Air Officer of the Air Force (a rank above Group Captain).
• Commanding Officer Appointment: The Act establishes a Commanding Officer responsible for leading a unit, ship, or establishment within the Inter-Services Organisation.
  • The Commanding Officer carries out duties assigned by the Commander-in-Chief or Officer-in-Command.
  • They have the authority to initiate disciplinary or administrative actions for personnel within the Inter-Services Organisation.

Need for the Act:

• Theaterisation Drive: The enactment aligns with the ongoing push for theaterisation, a vital military reform aimed at optimizing resources for future combat scenarios.
• Existing Framework Challenges: Currently, armed forces personnel are governed by separate laws— the Air Force Act, 1950, the Army Act, 1950, and the Navy Act, 1957—resulting in disjointed disciplinary powers.
  • Under the current setup, only officers from the same service possess disciplinary authority over personnel governed by the respective Act, leading to command, control, and discipline challenges.
• Financial Implications: The present framework entails time-consuming processes and financial expenditures for personnel transfers.
  • The proposed legislation seeks to remedy these challenges by enhancing discipline enforcement, expediting case resolutions, and potentially saving public funds.

Why is it in the News?

Two Kerala government-controlled temple boards, which together manage 2,500-odd temples in the state, have banned the use of oleander flowers (locally known as arali) in temple offerings after a 24-year-old woman died after accidentally chewing some oleander leaves.

What is Oleander?

• Nerium oleander, commonly known as oleander or rosebay, is a plant cultivated worldwide in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions.
• Known for its drought tolerance, the shrub is often used for ornamental and landscaping purposes.
• In Kerala, the plant is known by the names of arali and kanaveeram and is grown along highways and beaches as a natural, green fencing.
• There are different varieties of oleander, each with a flower of a different colour.

How is oleander used in traditional medicine?

• The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API), a government document that describes the quality, purity, and strength of drugs used in Ayurveda, mentions oleander.
  • According to API, an oil prepared from the root bark can be used to treat skin diseases.
• The plant has been “frequently described in Brihattrayi, Nighantus and other classical Ayurvedic texts.
  • Charka [Charak Samhita] has prescribed the leaves of white-flowered variety externally for chronic and obstinate skin diseases of serious nature including leprosy.

How toxic is oleander?

• Even though it is prescribed in some ayurvedic formulations, oleander’s toxicity has also long been recognised across the world.
• The plant has been “exploited therapeutically and as an instrument of suicide since antiquity.
• Moreover, ingestion or inhalation of smoke from burning oleander can also be intoxicating.
  • This is due to the properties of cardiac glycosides (a type of chemical) including oleandrin, folinerin, and digitoxigenin, which are present in all parts of the plant.
• Cardiac glycosides are steroidal compounds capable of exerting pharmacological effects on cardiac muscle.
  • The primary therapeutic value of these glycosides lies in their ability to exert profound tonic effects on the heart.
  • However, the therapeutic window is small and overdose/toxicity is frequently encountered when using these drugs.
• Effects of oleander toxicity include nausea, diarrhoea, vomiting, rashes, confusion, dizziness, irregular heartbeat, slow heartbeat, and, in extreme cases, death.
• Symptoms last for 1 to 3 days and may require a hospital stay.

Why is it in the News?

According to the recently released World Migration Report 2024, which is published by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), India has consistently been the top recipient of remittances globally.

Key Highlights of the World Migration Report 2024:

• Resilience Amidst COVID-19: Despite the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, international migration remains a vital driver of human development and economic progress.
  • Notably, there has been a remarkable over 650 per cent surge in international remittances from 2000 to 2022, soaring from USD 128 billion to USD 831 billion.
  • This growth defied predictions of a substantial decrease in remittances due to COVID-19.
• Remittances to Low and Middle-income Countries: Out of the total remittances, which amounted to USD 831 billion, a significant portion of USD 647 billion was sent by migrants to low and middle-income countries.
  • These remittances play a crucial role in the GDPs of these nations, surpassing foreign direct investment globally.
• Persistent Challenges: While international migration continues to foster human development, the report underscores enduring challenges.
  • The global population of international migrants has reached approximately 281 million, while the number of individuals displaced by conflict, violence, disasters, and other factors has surged to a record high of 117 million.
  • Urgent action is imperative to address displacement crises effectively.
• Misinformation and Politicization: Despite the fact that most migration is regular, safe, and regionally focused, public discourse has been clouded by misinformation and politicization.
  • It is essential to provide a clear and accurate depiction of migration dynamics to counteract this trend.

About the International Organization for Migration (IOM):

• Established in 1951, IOM, the UN Migration Agency, is the leading inter-governmental organization in the field of migration and works closely with governmental, intergovernmental and non-governmental partners.
• IOM works to help ensure the orderly and humane management of migration, promote international cooperation on migration issues, assist in the search for practical solutions to migration problems and provide humanitarian assistance to migrants in need, including refugees and internally displaced people.
• Membership: Currently, IOM counts 175 Member States and 8 states with Observer status.
• India joined as an IOM Member State on June 18, 2008.
• Headquarters: Situated in Geneva, Switzerland, IOM's headquarters serves as a hub for its global operations.

Why is it in the News?

Google Deepmind has unveiled the third major version of its “AlphaFold” artificial intelligence model, designed to help scientists design drugs and target diseases more effectively.

About AlphaFold 3:

• AlphaFold 3 is a major advancement in artificial intelligence created by Google's DeepMind in collaboration with Isomorphic Labs.
• It's essentially a powerful tool that can predict the structures and interactions of various biological molecules such as:
• Predict structures of biomolecules: Unlike previous versions that focused on proteins, AlphaFold 3 can predict the 3D structure of a wide range of molecules, including DNA, RNA, and even small molecules like drugs (ligands).
  • This is a significant leap in understanding how these molecules function.
• Model molecular interactions: AlphaFold 3 goes beyond just structure prediction.
  • It can also model how these molecules interact with each other, providing valuable insights into cellular processes and disease mechanisms.

The potential applications of AlphaFold 3 are vast. It has the potential to revolutionize fields like:

• Drug discovery: By understanding how drugs interact with their targets, researchers can design more effective medications.
• Genomics research: AlphaFold 3 can help scientists understand the function of genes and how mutations can lead to disease.
• Materials science: By modelling the interactions between molecules, scientists can design new materials with specific properties.
• AlphaFold 3 is a significant breakthrough and is freely available for non-commercial use through AlphaFold Server.
• This makes this powerful tool accessible to researchers around the world,  potentially accelerating scientific advancements.

Why is it in the News?

Scientists utilized a CRISPR-Cas9 tool to restore vision in individuals, including adults and children, afflicted with congenital blindness termed Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA).

What is Leber Congenital Amaurosis?

• Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA) is a rare genetic eye disorder where affected infants experience severe vision loss or blindness at birth.
• The condition results from the impaired function of light-gathering cells (rods and cones) in the retina.

Prevalence and Cause:

• LCA affects approximately one in 40,000 people.
• It is caused by a gene mutation that disrupts the proper function of the CEP290 protein, which is critical for vision.

Recent Development:

• Scientists have employed CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology to develop a novel therapy called EDIT-101.
• In a clinical trial called "BRILLIANCE," participants received a single dose of EDIT-101.
• The treatment involves cutting out the mutation in the CEP290 gene and replacing it with healthy DNA, restoring the normal function of the CEP290 protein and allowing the retina to detect light.
• This groundbreaking approach offers a promising treatment for individuals affected by LCA.

What is CRISPR-Cas9?

• CRISPR-Cas9 is a unique technology that enables geneticists and medical researchers to edit parts of the genome by removing, adding or altering sections of the DNA sequence.
• It is currently the simplest, most versatile and precise method of genetic manipulation.

How does CRISPR-Cas9 work?

• The CRISPR-Cas9 system operates through two primary molecules:
  • Cas9, an enzyme often likened to "molecular scissors," which can precisely cut both strands of DNA at a designated location in the genome.
  • Guide RNA (gRNA), a segment of RNA containing a specific pre-designed sequence (about 20 bases long) within a longer RNA scaffold.
  • The scaffold binds to DNA, while the pre-designed sequence guides Cas9 to the intended genomic location, ensuring accurate DNA cleavage.
• The guide RNA is tailored to identify and bind to a particular sequence in the DNA, with RNA bases that complement those of the target DNA sequence.
  • This specificity ensures that the guide RNA binds solely to the target sequence and avoids other genomic regions.
• Once bound, Cas9 cuts across both DNA strands at the targeted location.
  • Subsequently, the cell's repair mechanisms recognize the DNA damage and attempt to rectify it.
• Scientists exploit this DNA repair process to introduce alterations to one or more genes within the genome of a selected cell.

Why is it in the News?

To revive the population of tigers in Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (STR) — the lone tiger reserve in the Maharashtra western region — the state’s forest department will soon translocate tigers from Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR) in Chandrapur district.

What are Wildlife Corridors?

• Corridors are essentially habitats and pathways that connect wildlife populations, which are fragmented by human settlements and infrastructure works.
• They are crucial for the long-term survival of the tiger population as they help guard against localised extinctions and ensure the exchange of gene flow, which helps in population diversity.
• Tigers have large home ranges and often travel long distances in search of mates and food.
  • In doing so, they make use of these wildlife corridors and cross several human-dominated landscapes.
• The role played by corridors in conservation is a well-established one and has been incorporated into policy decisions as well.
• Mitigation measures such as underpasses, and wildlife crossings are now routinely ordered to safeguard tigers and other wildlife in projects where linear infrastructure projects fragment habitats.
• Litigation, advocacy, and policymaking have all contributed to this.
  • The construction of an overpass on the National Highway- 7 to protect the migratory route of tigers underneath between the Kanha and Pench Tiger Reserves is one instance of embedding mitigation measures to protect corridors.
• Tigers routinely use the space beneath the elevated stretch of the highway to cross the forests.
  • In 2014-15, the National Tiger Conservation Authority and Wildlife Institute of India (WII) mapped 32 major tiger corridors in the country across four broad tiger landscapes – Shivalik Hills and Gangetic plains, Central India and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, and the North East Hills.

Is Translocation the Best Approach for Tiger Recovery?

• Tiger translocation projects have been undertaken in India since 2008.
  • Sariska Tiger Reserve, in 2008, and Panna Tiger Reserve, in 2009, have witnessed successful tiger reintroduction and translocation projects.
• There have also been failures and shelving of reintroduction plans, like in the case of Satkosia Tiger Reserve in Odisha, which was the country’s first inter-state translocation project.
• However, before choosing translocation, other available options such as habitat improvement, prey augmentation, strengthening of tiger corridors, and vigilance improvement should be assessed.
• Even after translocations, one must ensure that corridors are strengthened and they are free of major disturbances.
  • This will ensure the dispersal of tigers to other source population areas.

Why is it in the News?

Delhi LG V K Saxena recently recommended a (NIA) probe against jailed Delhi CM Arvind Kejriwal for allegedly receiving political funding from Sikhs for Justice (SFJ), a New York-based pro-Khalistan organisation that is banned in India.

What is Sikhs for Justice (SfJ)?

• Sikhs for Justice (SFJ) formed in 2007, is a US-based group seeking a separate homeland for Sikhs, a “Khalistan” in Punjab.
• Its founder Gurpatwant Singh Pannun, a law graduate from Panjab University and currently an attorney at law in the US, is the face of SFJ and its legal adviser.
• Panun had launched the secessionist Sikh Referendum 2020 campaign, an initiative that eventually became defunct.
  • He was among the nine individuals designated as “terrorists” by the Union Ministry of Home Affairs.
• ‘Referendum 2020’, claimed it wanted to “liberate Punjab from Indian occupation”.
• In Pannun’s words, “SFJ in its London Declaration (in August 2018) had announced to hold the first-ever non-binding referendum among the global Sikh community on the question of secession from India and re-establishing Punjab as an independent country.”

Banned in India:

• India refers to Gurpatwant Singh Pannun as a terrorist, and has banned SFJ under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967.
• The Home Ministry’s 2019 notification issuing the ban says: “In the garb of the so-called referendum for Sikhs, SFJ is actually espousing secessionism and militant ideology in Punjab, while operating from safe havens on foreign soils and actively supported by inimical forces in other countries.”
• Currently, almost a dozen cases are registered against Pannun and SFJ in India.

Why is it in the News?

There’s a new group of COVID-19 variants within the Omicron JN.1 lineage “which have demonstrated increased transmissibility and immune resistance” recently detected in the United States.

What is the New Covid-19 Variant FLiRT?

• FLiRT variants are sub-lineages of the Omicron COVID-19 variant.
• Detected in the United States, this variant group has been named Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) FLiRT variant KP.2 and is a spinoff of JN.1.11.1.
• According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), FLiRT has led to increased hospitalisation rates, although it has not significantly raised mortality rates.
  • Its primary impact is on the upper respiratory tract.
• The rapid emergence and diversification of the JN.1 variant and its descendant, KP.2, which shows significant alterations in spike (S) protein structure and increased resistance to existing vaccines, underscore the necessity for further research to understand the implications for public health and vaccine development.

Where does the name come from?

• The letters of FLiRT variation are derived from the technical names of the mutations:
  • F and L are included in one, and R and T which is included in another.

What are the emerging symptoms?

• Symptoms associated with FLiRT are similar to those of other Omicron subvariants, including sore throat, cough, fatigue, nasal congestion, runny nose, headache, muscle aches, fever, and possible loss of taste and smell

Transmissibility:

• This variant is highly transmissible and can impact immunity and overall health.
• This variant spreads via respiratory droplets of the person to others or touching infected surfaces such as faucets, furniture, elevator buttons, and kitchen countertops, or coming in close contact with the person who is sick with this variant

Is there a concern for India?

• Currently, there are no reported cases of FLiRT variants in India, and our immunity is acquired.
• Thus far, no new vaccine is recommended.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, China launched its second mission to the far side of the Moon. If successful, it will be the world’s first mission to bring back samples from the part of the Moon that the Earth never gets to see.

What is Chang’e-6 Mission?

• China's Chang'e-6 spacecraft launched recently, on a mission to collect samples from the far side of the Moon.
• The mission aims to grab samples containing material ejected from the lunar mantle and thus provide insight into the history of the Moon, Earth, and Solar System.
• It is a 53-day-long mission. After reaching the Moon’s orbit, the mission’s orbiter will circle the natural satellite while its lander will descend into the 2,500-kilometre-wide South Pole-Aitken basin on the lunar surface.
• The impact that created the basin, among the largest in the history of the solar system, is thought to have dug up material from the lunar mantle.
• If that material can be retrieved, scientists can learn more about the history of the Moon’s insides.
• After collecting samples through scooping and drilling, the lander will launch an ascent vehicle, which will transfer the samples to the orbiter’s service module.
  • This module will then return to the Earth.
• China is the only country to achieve a soft landing on the far side of the Moon.
  • In 2019, its Chang’e-4 mission landed on the region and explored the Moon’s Von Karman crater with the help of a rover.

Why is the Far Side of the Moon Important?

• The Moon’s far side is often referred to as the dark side because it cannot be seen from the Earth, not because it does not catch the Sun’s rays.
  • The Moon is tidally locked with the Earth and therefore, we see only one side of the Moon, also known as the near side.
• The far side has been under the spotlight in recent years as it is very different from the near side.
• It has a thicker crust, more craters and fewer maria, or plains where lava once flowed.
• Examining the samples from the far side can help scientists solve mysteries about the origin and evolution of the Moon — till now, scientists have only been able to analyse samples from the near side.
• The far-side samples can also give answers to the longstanding question: why is it different from the near side?
• Going to the far side, getting samples and doing different kinds of geophysical measurements is really important to figuring out this really long, long-standing mystery.

Why is it in the News?

For the first time, researchers have created a free-standing sheet of gold (goldene) that is only one atom thick.

What Is Goldene?

• Goldene is an innovative, free-standing 2D metal with a thickness of just one atom.
• Created through a unique process, Goldene offers a wide range of potential applications in various industries, particularly in electronics and catalysis.

How is it created?

• Scientists first encapsulate an atomic monolayer of silicon between layers of titanium carbide.
• Gold is deposited on this structure, allowing the gold atoms to diffuse and replace the silicon atoms, creating a monolayer of trapped gold atoms.
• Using Murakami's reagent and a Japanese technique employed in forging katanas and high-quality knives, the titanium carbide layers are etched away, leaving a free-standing, one-atom-thick layer of gold.

Dimensions:

• Goldene sheets are approximately 100 nanometres thick, roughly 400 times thinner than the most delicate commercially available gold leaf.

Applications: Goldene's unique properties offer potential applications in various sectors:

• Electronics industry: Goldene's thinness and conductivity can enhance electrical components and circuitry.
• Carbon dioxide conversion: It can potentially aid in transforming carbon dioxide into useful products.
• Hydrogen-generating catalysis: Goldene could be utilized to efficiently produce hydrogen.
• Selective production of value-added chemicals: The material's properties enable the selective generation of chemicals for specific applications.
• Hydrogen production: It can contribute to the clean production of hydrogen.
• Water purification: Goldene could be implemented in water treatment technologies.

Significance:

• Goldene is an economically viable alternative to conventional, thicker gold structures, making it an appealing option for catalytic applications.
• Its unique characteristics position Goldene as a potentially revolutionary material for various industries.

Why is it in the News?

The Eta Aquariid meteor shower, which has been active since April 15, will peak on May 4 and 5.

About Eta Aquariid Meteor Shower:

• The Eta Aquariids are a meteor shower associated with Halley's Comet.
• The shower is visible from about April 19 to about May 28 each year with peak activity on or around May 5.
• It is formed when Earth passes through the orbital plane of the famous Halley’s Comet, which takes about 76 years to orbit the Sun once.
• It seems to be originating from the Aquarius constellation, hence ‘Eta Aquariid’.
• The Eta Aquariid meteor shower is known for its rapid speed.
  • This makes for long, glowing tails which can last up to several minutes.
• About 30 to 40 Eta Aquarid meteors can be seen per hour during the peak of the meteor shower if observed from the Southern Hemisphere.
• The number decreases to about 10 meteors per hour if being viewed in the Northern Hemisphere.
• This is due to the location of the “radiant” — the position in the sky where the meteor shower seems to come from.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, Eta Aquarid meteors most often appear as ‘Earthgrazers’ long meteors that appear to skim the surface of the Earth.
• In the South, however, they can be seen higher up in the sky and hence are more visible.

What are Comets?

• Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of our solar system, some 4.6 billion years ago.
• They are composed of dust, rock and ice and orbit around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits which can, in some cases, take hundreds of thousands of years to complete.
• Billions of them are theorised to be orbiting the Sun beyond Neptune, in the Kuiper Belt and even more distant Oort cloud.
• Comets come in different sizes, although most are roughly 10 km wide.
• However, as they come closer to the Sun, comets “heat up and spew gases and dust into a glowing head that can be larger than a planet.
• This material also forms a tail that stretches millions of miles.

How are Meteor Showers Related to Comets?

• Meteors are simply grains of dust or rock that burn up as they enter the Earth’s atmosphere.
  • This burning also creates a brief tail.
• Since most meteors are tiny they completely burn up in Earth’s atmosphere. However, once in a while, a large enough meteor passes through and hits the ground (at which time it is called a meteorite), often causing significant damage.
• A meteor shower can be observed when Earth passes through the clouds of dust left behind in a comet’s orbital plane.
• The sky lights up with small and large meteor tails as the debris left behind by the comet interacts with Earth’s atmosphere.

Why is it in the News?

“GPT-4 is the dumbest model any of you will ever have to use again,” said the OpenAI’s CEO Sam Altman at a time when his company is going big on superintelligence or Artificial General Intelligence (AGI).

What Is Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)?

• Artificial general intelligence (AGI) is a team used to define the concept of development of AI to a level that can almost be capable of human intelligence and able to solve complex problems.
  • Artificial intelligence (AI) is a broad field that encompasses various domains and applications, such as computer vision, natural language processing, machine learning, robotics, and more.
• AGI is a fictional Super Intelligence system that can match human intelligence.
• In Normal terms, AGI is also called strong AI, full AI, or general intelligent action.
• AGI systems are expected to have human-like or superhuman cognitive abilities, such as reasoning, planning, learning, communication, creativity, and problem-solving.
• AGI systems would be able to perform any task that humans can do, and even tasks that humans cannot do.

What is the Difference Between AI & AGI?

• AI systems are trained to perform specific tasks that require some level of intelligence, such as recognizing faces, translating languages, playing games, or diagnosing diseases.
• However, these systems are not able to generalize their skills and knowledge to other domains or tasks that they were not trained for.
  • This is where artificial general intelligence (AGI) comes in.
• Artificial intelligence is an Umbrella containing the science of developing systems and processes that can replicate human intelligence.
• It's an umbrella containing multiple subdomains specifically built to develop such intelligence systems.
• Artificial General Intelligence is more like the system's ability to learn by itself, and behave like human intelligence. It's an evolved system with the help of heavily trained AI over time.

How can AGI Help Humanity?

• In theory, AGI has innumerable positive implications.
  • For instance, in healthcare, it can redefine diagnostics, treatment planning, and personalised medicine by integrating and analysing vast datasets, far beyond the capabilities of humans.
• In finance and business, AGI could automate various processes and enhance overall decision-making, offering real-time analytics and market predictions with accuracy.
• When it comes to education, AGI could transform adaptive learning systems that work towards the unique needs of students.
  • This could potentially democratise access to personalised education worldwide.

Why is it in the News?

The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is likely to issue a Blue Corner notice against absconding Janata Dal (Secular) MP Prajwal Revanna.

What is Interpol’s Colour-coded Notices?

• A Blue or a Blue Corner notice is a part of Interpol’s elaborate system of colour-coded notices, which enable countries to “share alerts and requests for information [on wanted persons/crimes] worldwide”.
• This sharing of critical crime-related information is crucial for tackling internationally spread-out criminal activities.
• There are seven types of notices — Red Notice, Yellow Notice, Blue Notice, Black Notice, Green Notice, Orange Notice, and Purple Notice. Each has a different implication.
  • Red Notice: To seek the location and arrest of persons wanted for prosecution or to serve a sentence.
  • Yellow Notice: To help locate missing persons, often minors, or to help identify persons who are unable to identify themselves.
  • Blue Notice: To collect additional information about a person’s identity, location or activities in relation to a criminal investigation.
  • Black Notice: To seek information on unidentified bodies.
  • Green Notice: To provide a warning about a person’s criminal activities, where the person is considered to be a possible threat to public safety.
  • Orange Notice: To warn of an event, a person, an object or a process representing a serious and imminent threat to public safety.
  • Purple Notice: To seek or provide information on modus operandi, objects, devices and concealment methods used by criminals.
• These notices are issued by Interpol’s General Secretariat at the request of a member country’s Interpol National Central Bureau and are made available for all member countries.

What is Interpol?

• Interpol, or the International Criminal Police Organization, is an intergovernmental organization that facilitates global police cooperation and crime control.
• Founded in 1923, Interpol enables member countries to share data and collaborate on investigating cross-border crimes, such as terrorism, drug trafficking, cybercrime, and human trafficking.
• Interpol is composed of a network of 194 member countries, each having a National Central Bureau (NCB) that serves as the point of contact for international investigations. Key functions of Interpol include:
  • Providing a secure communication system for member countries to exchange information on criminal activities.
  • Facilitating operational support and assistance for member countries in managing crime-related crises and emergencies.
  • Coordinating training and capacity-building initiatives to enhance the capabilities of law enforcement agencies.
  • Issuing colour-coded notices (e.g., Red Notice for wanted persons) to alert member countries about international criminals and activities.
  • Providing access to databases containing vital data on known criminals, fingerprints, DNA profiles, and stolen and lost travel documents.
• Interpol functions within the framework of international law and operates in accordance with the principle of neutrality, ensuring that it does not interfere in the political, military, religious, or racial affairs of member countries.
• Its main objective is to provide a platform for international police cooperation and create a safer world for all.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, the Delhi High Court called for action against the 'rampant use of Oxytocin' in dairy colonies.

What is Oxytocin?

• Oxytocin also known as the ‘love hormone’ is secreted by the pituitary glands of mammals during sex, childbirth, lactation, or social bonding.
• It is normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary.
• It can be chemically manufactured and sold by pharma companies for use during childbirth.
• It is administered either as an injection or a nasal solution. 

Side effects of oxytocin:

• A few side effects of oxytocin in humans would include:
  • Allergic reactions on the skin like rashes Itching, hives Swelling, lips, tongue, or throat
  • Changes in the heart rhythm causing fast or irregular heartbeat, dizziness, feeling faint or lightheaded
  • Pain in the chest
  • Breathlessness and trouble breathing
  • Nausea Vomiting
  • Severe headache
  • Blurred vision
  • Pounding in the neck or ears
  • Jaundice Seizure
• According to doctors, prolonged use of oxytocin injections also causes fertility disorders like poor oestrus signs, reduced lactation period, lower conception rate, and high embryonic mortalities.
• Oxytocin injection given to cattle to boost the delivery of milk production is one of the reasons for the early onset of puberty among girls, the development of breasts in males, and the lack of testosterone production due to hormonal imbalance. 

Affects fertility in both men and women:

• Milk adulterated with oxytocin is to be avoided by pregnant women as it can cause abortion and babies may be born with deformities.
• It also increases the risk of haemorrhage in mothers after birth and can also inhibit breastfeeding. 
  • However, boiling milk can help eliminate traces of oxytocin. 

What are Hormones?

• Hormones are special chemicals produced by glands in the endocrine system that act as messengers in the body, regulating various physiological processes like growth, metabolism, reproduction, and mood.
• They travel through the bloodstream to target organs and tissues, where they exert their effects by binding to specific receptors and influencing cellular activity.

Why is it in the News?

After allegations of sexual abuse by Janata Dal (Secular) MP Prajwal Revanna came to light, the politician fled to Germany on a diplomatic passport.

What is a Diplomatic Passport?

• Diplomatic passports are issued to people holding diplomatic status or deputed by the Government of India for official duty abroad.
• Unlike normal passports, which are valid for 10 years and have a dark blue cover, diplomatic passports are valid for five years or less and have maroon covers.
• Diplomatic passports, also known as 'Type D' passports.
• A diplomatic passport has 28 pages.
• Holders of such passports are entitled to certain privileges and immunities as per international law, including immunity from arrest, detention, and certain legal proceedings in the host country.

Issuing Authority:

• The Ministry of External Affairs’s (MEA) Consular, Passport & Visa Division issues diplomatic passports (‘Type D’ passports) to people falling in broadly five categories:
  • Those with diplomatic status;
  • Government-appointed individuals travelling abroad for official business;
  • Officers working under the branches A and B of the Indian Foreign Service (IFS), normally at the rank of Joint Secretary and above; and
  • Relatives and immediate family of officers employed in IFS and MEA.
  • Select individuals who are authorised to undertake official travel on behalf of the government”.
• The MEA issues visa notes to government officials going abroad for an official assignment or visit.

What are the Benefits of Having a Diplomatic Passport?

• Official identification: The diplomatic passport serves as an official identification document for individuals representing the Indian government on diplomatic missions.
  • It helps in establishing their identity and official status.
• Diplomatic immunity: Diplomatic passport holders are typically entitled to certain privileges and immunities as per international law.
  • This includes immunity from arrest, detention, and certain legal proceedings in the host country, safeguarding their ability to perform official duties without hindrance.
• Visa facilitation: Diplomatic passports often enjoy certain privileges when it comes to visa facilitation.
  • Many countries offer expedited visa processing or waive visa requirements altogether for diplomatic passport holders, simplifying travel arrangements for official purposes.
• Access to diplomatic channels: The diplomatic passport grants access to diplomatic channels and services provided by Indian embassies, consulates, and other diplomatic missions worldwide.
  • This includes assistance with consular services, protection, and support while abroad.
• Priority services: Diplomatic passport holders may receive priority services at airports and during immigration procedures.
  • This can include dedicated immigration counters or expedited security and customs clearance, saving time during travel.
• Official representation: The diplomatic passport signifies the official representation of the Indian government and confers a sense of authority and credibility while dealing with international counterparts, foreign officials, and diplomatic communities.

Can Diplomatic Passports be Revoked?

• According to The Passports Act, 1967, the passport authority may cancel a passport or travel document, with the previous approval of the Central government.
• The passport authority can impound or revoke a passport if the authority believes that:
  • The passport holder or travel document is in wrongful possession
  • If the passport was obtained by the suppression of material information or based on wrong information provided by the individual
  • If it is brought to the notice of the passport authority that the individual has been issued a court order prohibiting his departure from India or has been summoned by the court.
• A diplomatic passport can be revoked upon orders from a court during proceedings with respect to an offence allegedly carried out by the passport holder before a criminal court.

Why is it in the News?

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is struggling to contain its biggest Mpox outbreak.

What Is Monkeypox (Mpox)?

• Mpox (formerly known as monkeypox) is a rare viral infection caused by the mpox virus, a member of the orthopoxvirus genus.
• It was first discovered in 1958 in monkeys but can also infect humans and other animals.
• Mpox typically presents with a range of symptoms and can be transmitted through close contact with infected individuals or animals.

Symptoms:

• Mpox symptoms often begin with fever, muscle aches, and sore throat, followed by a rash that starts on the face and spreads across the body.
• The rash evolves over two to four weeks, forming macules, papules, vesicles, and pustules before crusting over.
• Lesions can also appear on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.

Causes:

• The mpox virus is primarily transmitted through direct contact with the skin lesions, body fluids, or respiratory droplets of infected individuals or animals.
• It can also be contracted through contaminated materials, such as bedding or clothing.

Prevention:

• Preventing mpox involves avoiding contact with infected individuals or animals, practising good hygiene, and disinfecting contaminated surfaces.
• Vaccines are also available for individuals at high risk of contracting the virus.

Treatment:

• There is currently no specific treatment for mpox, but symptoms can be managed with supportive care, such as fever reducers and pain medications. In some cases, antiviral medications may be used.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) reported that “Indian spies” had been “kicked out of Australia” after being caught trying to steal secrets about sensitive defence projects and airport security, as well as classified information on Australia’s trade relationships”.

What is the Five Eyes?

• The Five Eyes is an intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, formed in 1946.
• The alliance is based on a series of bilateral agreements on surveillance and intelligence-sharing.
  • These arrangements are commonly known as the United Kingdom-United States Communication Intelligence Act (UKUSA) agreement.
• The UKUSA agreement is a secret pact that, since 1946, has allowed the two countries to share intelligence with each other.
  • The UKUSA agreement was so secret that its existence wasn't even acknowledged until 2005.
• Each of the Five Eyes states pursues interception, collection, and decryption activities and shares all intelligence information obtained with the others by default.
• These countries share information with each other through the ultra-sensitive STONEGHOST network, which has been claimed to contain "some of the Western world's most closely guarded secrets".
• The Five Eyes states share integrated programmes, staff, and bases.

Origins of the Five Eyes

• During World War II, informal secret meetings between British and American code-breakers laid the groundwork for establishing the FE alliance.
• After the Cold War, the information-sharing arrangement became formalised under the ECHELON surveillance system in the 1960s.

How does the Five Eyes Alliance operate?

• The alliance facilitates the sharing of signals intelligence among the five countries.
• The countries agree to exchange by default all signals intelligence they gather.
• The bedrock of the Five Eyes Alliance is based on the joint abilities of the United Kingdom's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) and the USA's National Security Agency (NSA) to intercept intelligence.
  • These agencies collect and decrypt signal intelligence, called SigInt, which involves internet, telephone, radio and satellite data from across the world.
• The UKUSA Agreement, which was made public in 2010, states:
  • "It will be contrary to this agreement to reveal its existence to any third party whatsoever" and "each party will seek the agreement of the other to any action with third parties and will take no action until its advisability is agreed upon."

Why is it in the News?

The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) recently tested a next-generation torpedo release system aimed at boosting the Navy’s anti-submarine warfare capabilities.

What is a SMART System?

• The SMART system, designed to bolster the Indian Navy's anti-submarine warfare capabilities, represents a fusion of cutting-edge technology and indigenous innovation.
• With its supersonic capabilities and torpedo release mechanism, the SMART system offers a formidable deterrent against potential submarine threats, enhancing the Indian Navy's operational readiness and maritime defence posture.
• The SMART system comprises a mechanism by which the torpedo is launched from a supersonic missile system with modifications that would take the torpedo to a far longer range than its own.
  • For example, a torpedo with a range of a few kilometres can be sent a distance to the tune of 1000 km by the missile system from where the torpedo is launched.
• The system also gives flexibility in terms of the missile system’s launch platform.
• A number of DRDO laboratories including Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) and Research Centre Imarat (RCI), both in Hyderabad; Aerial Delivery Research and Development Establishment (ADRDE) in Agra; and Naval Science and Technology Laboratory (NSTL) Visakhapatnam have developed the technologies required for SMART.

Key Features of SMART Anti-submarine Missile System:

• It is a canister-based, long-range anti-submarine missile system.
• It has been developed by the DRDO for the Indian Navy.
• The objective behind the project is to develop a quick reaction system that can launch a torpedo from a standoff distance.
• The missile has a range of 643 km carrying a lightweight torpedo of range 20 km with a 50 kg high explosive warhead.
• SMART uses a two-way data link connected to airborne or ship-based submarine detection and identification systems.
• It can be launched from a surface ship or a truck-based coastal battery.
• The missile is powered by a dual-stage solid-propellant rocket and utilizes electro-mechanical actuators for course correction.
• The missile utilizes sea skimming to reduce detection range.
• The first successful test of SMART was done on 5 October 2020 from Abdul Kalam Island.

Significance:

• This missile-based mechanism to launch lightweight torpedoes can target submarines hundreds of kilometres away — far beyond the conventional range of lightweight torpedoes.
• It will be particularly employed in the absence of other assets for immediate action when an enemy submarine is detected.

Why is it in the News?

The Booker Prize, one of the most prestigious awards in the literary world, has recently come under fire for the historical links to slavery of its original sponsor, Booker Group.

What is the Booker Prize?

• The Booker Prize was founded in 1969, initially just for writers from the Commonwealth, but later opened to writers globally.
• Each year, the prize is awarded to a single work of fiction in the English language.
  • In 2004, a separate International Booker Prize was instituted for translated works.
• The prize was co-founded by publishers Tom Maschler and Graham C Greene, and from 1969 to 2001, it was sponsored by, and named after Booker Group Ltd, a British wholesale foods company, established in 1835 as a shipping and trading company, and now owned by Tesco.
• In 2002, British investment management firm Man Group became the prize’s sponsor, and thus it came to be known as The Man Booker Prize.
• After Man Group ended its sponsorship in 2019, American charity Crankstart took over, and reverted the award’s name to its original ‘Booker Prize’.
  • Irish author Paul Lynch wins the 2023 Booker Prize for his novel 'Prophet Song'.

About the International Booker Prize:

• The International Booker Prize (formerly known as the Man Booker International Prize) was launched in 2005.
• It was originally awarded every two years to a living author who has published fiction either originally in English or whose work is generally available in translation in the English language.
• It was an award for the body of work of the author, rather than awarded for an individual novel.
• Beginning in 2016, the award changed. It is now given annually to a single book in English translation, with a £50,000 prize for the winning title, shared equally between author and translator.
  • Georgi Gospodinov and Angela Rodel have won the International Booker Prize 2023 for the novel ‘Time Shelter’.
  • ‘Tomb of Sand’ Geetanjali Shree, translated by Daisy Rockwell Winner 2022 winner.

Why is it in the News?

Capping consumption of urea and DAP to correct worsening plant nutrient imbalance is likely to be on the priority list of the government post the Lok Sabha polls.

What is Meant by the Term "Balanced Fertilization"?

• Fertilisers are basically food for crops, containing nutrients necessary for plant growth and grain yields.
• Balanced fertilisation means supplying these primary (N, phosphorus-P, and potassium-K), secondary (sulphur-S, calcium, magnesium), and micro (iron, zinc, copper, manganese, boron, molybdenum) nutrients in the right proportion, based on soil type and the crop’s own requirement at different growth stages.

What is a Nutrient-based Subsidy?

• Nutrient-based subsidy (NBS) is a system started in 2010 to help farmers use the right amount of nutrients in fertilizers.
• Instead of giving a subsidy for each type of fertilizer, the government decided to give subsidies based on nutrients like Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), and Sulfur (S) in the fertilizers.
• The idea was to encourage farmers to use fertilizers with a balanced mix of nutrients, instead of just focusing on certain types like urea, DAP, and MOP.
  • These balanced fertilizers contain a mix of N, P, K, S, and other nutrients in the right amounts.
• At first, this plan seemed to work. Between 2010 and 2012, farmers started using more balanced fertilizers and less of the ones with just one or two nutrients.
  • But there was a problem: urea, which is heavily used by farmers, was not included in this plan.
• Since the government controlled the price of urea and only went up a little bit after the NBS was introduced, farmers kept using it more and more.
• This means that even though the NBS helped with other fertilizers, it didn't do much to reduce the use of urea.

Challenges:

• The challenges arise from recent changes in fertilizer pricing and consumption patterns.
• Earlier, companies set prices for non-urea fertilizers, with the government providing subsidies based on their nutrient content.
  • However, in the past few years, even non-urea fertilizers have come under price control, especially since January 2024, possibly due to upcoming elections.
• This shift has led to imbalances in nutrient usage.
  • For example, the current price of DAP is lower than certain NPKS complex fertilizers, even though it contains less nitrogen and phosphorus.
• As a result, farmers tend to overuse DAP, similar to urea. On the other hand, the price of MOP does not incentivize its use, leading to its reduced incorporation into fertilizers, despite its importance for crop immunity and nitrogen uptake.
• To address these issues, it's crucial to establish a proper price hierarchy among non-urea fertilizers.
• DAP should be priced highest, followed by complexes, with MOP priced the lowest. Additionally, DAP usage should be limited to rice and wheat, while other crops can fulfil their phosphorus needs through complexes and SSP.
• Improving the acceptability of SSP, despite its lower price, can be achieved by marketing it in granular form, which is less prone to adulteration and ensures a slower release of phosphorus without drift during application.

Why is it in the News?

The Bombay High Court has held that public sector banks (PSBs) cannot recommend or request the issuance of Look Out Circulars (LOCs) against loan defaulters and has set aside the provisions of the central government’s Office Memoranda (OM) that empowered PSBs to do so.

What are Look Out Circulars (LOCs)?

• Look Out Circulars (LOCs) is a governmental directive to immigration authorities, instructing them to regulate and restrict the physical movement of individuals.
• Law enforcement agencies utilize them to prevent individuals wanted by the police or under suspicion from leaving or entering the country through designated ports of entry, including land, air, and sea ports.
• Typically issued by police, intelligence agencies, or other authorized government bodies under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), LOCs are not explicitly backed by legislation but are governed by executive directives, such as the Office Memorandum issued by the MHA in 2021.
• This memorandum outlines consolidated guidelines for opening LOCs against both Indian citizens and foreigners.
• The guidelines dictate that LOCs can only be opened in criminal or penal cases, with the reason for the circular clearly indicated.
  • However, in exceptional circumstances, LOCs may be issued for reasons detrimental to the sovereignty, security, or integrity of India, bilateral relations with other states, or the strategic and economic interests of India.
• Basic details, including name, parentage, passport number, and date of birth, must be available before issuing an LOC, and the process requires constant monitoring to minimize inconvenience to genuine travellers.
  • Additionally, agencies responsible for requesting LOCs must review their requests quarterly and annually, with the results reported to the MHA.
• While the legal consequences of issuing an LOC lie with the originating agency, the power to issue such directives is derived from The Passports Act, 1967, which governs the grant of passports, travel documents, and endorsements to travellers during emigration or immigration processes.

Why is it in the News?

Underlining that the state and central consumer courts incorrectly applied the ‘eggshell skull’ legal principle, the Supreme Court recently restored the compensation of Rs 5 lakhs awarded by the district consumer forum in a medical negligence case.

What is the ‘Eggshell Skull’ Rule?

• The eggshell skull rule is a common law principle applied in civil litigation.
• Essentially, when the offender would be liable for all injuries that might be intensified due to the peculiar conditions of the injured person that the offender might not have known.
• Simply put, the defendant would be held responsible for injuries caused to a person when he hit him on the head, even if the victim had a particularly delicate skull or an ‘eggshell’ for a skull.
  • A person who has an eggshell skull would be more severely impacted by an act, which an otherwise “normal person” would be able to withstand.
• The rule is applied for claiming an enhanced compensation, for damage that is more than what could have been ordinarily anticipated to be caused by the defendant.

Origin of the ‘Eggshell Skull’ Rule:

• The 'eggshell skull' rule, also known as the 'thin skull rule,' is a legal doctrine that holds a defendant liable for all consequences resulting from their negligent or intentional actions, even if the victim's pre-existing vulnerability worsens the outcome.
• The rule's origins can be traced back to an 1891 US case, Vosburg v. Putney, in which a boy kicked another's shin without knowing about his prior injury, leading to complications.
  • The Wisconsin Supreme Court held that the defendant was responsible for the subsequent harm, even though he did not intend to cause such severe damage.
• A similar case in England a decade later involved a pregnant woman who experienced severe shock and gave birth to a disabled child after a horse van was negligently driven into a public house where she worked.
  • The King's Bench upheld the principle that defendants are liable for the harm caused to victims, regardless of pre-existing vulnerabilities.
• The eggshell skull rule has been applied in various legal cases across different jurisdictions, emphasizing that defendants are accountable for the consequences of their actions, even when victims' unique vulnerabilities contribute to more significant harm.