Why September 12 is Observed as Saragarhi Day:

• Historical Significance: The Battle of Saragarhi is considered one of the finest last stands in military history. On September 12, 1897, 21 soldiers of the 36th Sikh Regiment (now 4 Sikh) defended the fort against 8,000 Orakzai and Afridi tribal militants.
• 127th Anniversary: September 12 marks the 127th anniversary of this battle, which is now regarded as a legendary stand in global military history.
• The Battle: The 21 soldiers held the fort for seven hours despite being heavily outnumbered. They killed 200 militants and injured 600 before they were overwhelmed.
• Capt Amarinder Singh’s Account: In his book, he notes that the soldiers were aware of their certain death but chose to fight valiantly without surrendering, demonstrating unparalleled bravery.

What was Saragarhi and its Importance:

• Location and Role: Saragarhi was a communication tower between Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan in the North West Frontier Province (now Pakistan). It was crucial for linking these two forts, which housed a large number of British troops.
• Manning of Saragarhi: On that day, it was manned by only 21 soldiers from the 36th Sikh Regiment and a non-combatant, Daad, who performed odd jobs for the troops.

Details of the Battle:

• Initial Encounter: Around 9 am, the sentry spotted a large tribal army approaching, estimated between 8,000 and 15,000 strong.
• Communication: Sepoy Gurmukh Singh sent a Morse code message to Lt Col Houghton, requesting reinforcements. The response was to hold the position, as the supply route had been cut off.
• Challenges: The soldiers faced being outnumbered, limited ammunition (about 400 rounds per man), and communication issues. Sepoy Gurmukh Singh managed all heliograph communication tasks alone.

Key Figures:

• Havildar Ishar Singh: Leader of the defending troops, known for his bravery and independent nature. He was a respected and loved figure in his regiment.
• Sepoy Gurmukh Singh: The signalman who maintained communication during the battle, despite overwhelming challenges.
• Daad: The non-combatant who fought alongside the soldiers and killed five militants before being killed himself.

Recognition and Legacy:

• British Recognition: Queen Victoria awarded the 21 deceased soldiers the Indian Order of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross), along with two ‘marabas’ (50 acres) and Rs 500 each.
• Current Observance: In 2017, the Punjab government declared September 12 as Saragarhi Day.
• Memorials: The Khyber Scouts regiment of the Pakistani army still mounts a guard at the Saragarhi memorial. The British built an obelisk with bricks from Saragarhi and commissioned gurdwaras at Amritsar and Ferozepur in honor of the martyrs. Shiromani Gurudwara Parbandhak Committee has named a hall after Saragarhi.
• Cultural Impact: The Battle of Saragarhi has inspired various media portrayals, including Akshay Kumar’s film Kesari.

Why is it in the News?

Sepoy Mangal Pandey likely didn't anticipate that his shot at the Sergeant Major of his regiment near Kolkata on March 29, 1857, would ignite a significant event in Modern Indian history—the Revolt of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the First War of Indian Independence.

Who was Mangal Pandey?

• Mangal Pandey was a prominent historical figure who played a pivotal role in India's struggle for independence from British colonial rule.
• Born in the kingdom of Awadh, which contributed significantly to the East India Company's army, Mangal Pandey joined the 34th Bengal Native Infantry at the age of 22.

Annexation of Awadh:

• In 1856, the British annexed Awadh in a treacherous act that provoked widespread anger and resentment among the local population.
• The deposition of the Nawab and the subsequent confiscation of villages from the taluqdars during the land revenue settlement of 1856 only exacerbated the situation.

Mangal Pandey's Mutiny and Execution:

• The introduction of the Enfield rifle, which used animal fat (beef and pork) in its cartridges, was met with fierce resistance from soldiers like Mangal Pandey.
• They perceived the use of these cartridges as a direct affront to their religious beliefs.
• On March 29, 1857, Mangal Pandey openly revolted, firing at his Senior Sergeant Major in protest.
• His act of defiance led to his capture, and he was subsequently hanged by order of a Court Martial at Lal Bagan in Barrackpore.
• Mangal Pandey's sacrifice and bravery in the face of British oppression have earned him a lasting place in India's history as a symbol of resistance against colonial tyranny.

The Expansion of the 1857 Revolt and Its Lasting Impact:

• The bravery exhibited by Mangal Pandey inspired a wave of resistance among other soldiers, notably those of the 7th Awadh Regiment.

• On May 11, 1857, a group of Sepoys from Meerut refused to use the new cartridges and killed their European officers, marching to the Red Fort in an act of defiance.

The Legacy of the 1857 Revolt:

• The revolt of 1857 had far-reaching consequences and reshaped the dynamics of British rule in India.
• In response to the growing unrest, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act in 1858, effectively transferring all powers of the East India Company to the Crown.
  • Queen Victoria was subsequently declared the Sovereign of British India.
• The Queen's Proclamation, announced by Lord Canning in 1858, introduced a new policy of perpetual support for the native Princes and pledged non-intervention in matters of religious beliefs in India.
  • This policy was further reinforced in 1877 during the Delhi Durbar, where Queen Victoria assumed the title of Qaiser-e-Hind, reflecting her position as the Empress of India.
• The 1857 revolt, sparked by Mangal Pandey's actions, marked a turning point in India's struggle for independence and continues to be remembered as a pivotal moment in the nation's history.

Why is it in the News?

The NCERT has proposed updates to school textbooks, including adding findings from DNA analysis of skeletal remains at the Rakhigarhi archaeological site in Haryana and removing references to the Narmada Dam project's impact on tribals, leading to displacement and destitution.

About the Ancient Site of Rakhigarhi:

• The site of Rakhigarhi is one of the five known biggest townships of the Harappan civilization on the Indian subcontinent.
• The other four are:
  • Harappa
  • Mohenjodaro and Ganveriwala in Pakistan and
  • Dholavira (Gujrat) in India
• Five interconnected mounds spread over a huge area from the Rakhigarhi's unique site.
  • Two mounds, out of five, were thickly populated.
  • This site was excavated by Shri Amarendra Nath of Archeological Survey of India.
• The archaeological excavations revealed a mature Harappan phase represented by a planned township having mud-brick as well as burnt-brick houses with proper drainage systems.
• The ceramic industry is represented by redware, which includes dish-on-stands, vases, jars, bowls, beakers, perforated jars, goblets, and hands.
• Animal sacrificial pits lined with mud brick and triangular and circular fire alters on the mud floor have also been excavated signifying the ritual system of Harappans.
• A cylindrical seal with five Harappan characters on one side and a symbol of an alligator on the other is an important find from this site.
• Other antiquities included blades; terracotta and shell bangles; beads of semiprecious stones, terracotta, shell, and copper objects; animal figurines, toy cart frame and wheel of terracotta; bone points; inscribed steatite seals and sealings.
• The excavations have yielded a few extended burials, which certainly belong to a very late stage, maybe the medieval times.

About Harappan Civilization:

• The Harappan civilization is believed to be one of the oldest world civilizations together with Egypt and Mesopotamia.
• It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in contemporary Pakistan and Western India.
• The Harappan civilization developed along the mighty river, the Indus, and for that reason, it is also known as the Indus Valley Civilization.
• The Harappan civilization is identified as a Bronze-age civilization because many objects have been found that are made up of copper-based alloys. 
  • For example, the famous ‘dancing girl,’ a bronze figurine that provides an insight into the advances made in art and metallurgy, as well as the hairstyle and ornaments prevalent during the period.
• In the 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus Valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed.

Why is it in the News?

A recent film has been launched, depicting the inspiring life story of Indian freedom fighter Usha Mehta.

About Usha Mehta:

• Born in 1920 in the village of Saras, near Surat in Gujarat, Usha Mehta, affectionately known as Ushaben, embodied the Gandhian principles of non-violence and civil disobedience from a young age.

Early Activism:

• At the tender age of eight in 1928, she participated in a protest march against the Simon Commission, demonstrating her early commitment to India's independence struggle.
• The Secret Congress Radio: In 1942, amidst the fervor of the Quit India Movement, Usha Mehta and her colleagues boldly established the Secret Congress Radio.
  • This clandestine radio station played a pivotal role in connecting freedom movement leaders with the masses, ensuring the dissemination of crucial information, and maintaining the spirit of resistance against colonial rule.

Establishing an Underground Radio Station:

• With the outbreak of the War in 1939, the British government imposed stringent measures, including the suspension of all amateur radio licenses throughout the Empire.
• Operators were mandated to surrender their equipment to the authorities, under threat of severe repercussions for non-compliance.

Key Figures in the Operation:

• Usha Mehta, alongside Babubhai Khakar, Vithalbhai Jhaveri, and Chandrakant Jhaveri, played instrumental roles in orchestrating the Congress Radio initiative, defying the ban on amateur radio broadcasting.

The Congress Radio Trial:

• The trial of the five accused individuals—Usha Mehta, Babubhai Khakar, Vithalbhai Jhaveri, Chandrakant Jhaveri, and Nanak Gainchand Motwane, who facilitated crucial equipment—captivated public attention in Bombay.
  • While Vithalbhai and Motwane were acquitted, Mehta, Babubhai, and Chandrakant faced severe sentences for their involvement.

Usha Mehta's Legacy:

• Following her release from Pune's Yerawada Jail in March 1946, Usha Mehta was lauded in nationalist circles as "Radio-ben," symbolizing her courageous defiance and commitment to the freedom struggle through underground broadcasting.

 Independence, PhD, & Padma Vibhushan

• When India finally achieved independence in 1947, the British had divided the country into two parts – India and Pakistan, sending the region into chaos.
  • The divide results in massive bloodshed with more than 10 million Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs seeking to find their home.
  • Mehta was torn. “In a way, I was very happy, but sad at the same time because of partition.
  • It was an independent India but a divided India,” she was quoted as saying in the book Freedom Fighters Remembered.
• She was away from active politics in independent India due to her ill health but continued to remain a staunch Gandhian till the very end.
• She penned the script for a documentary on Gandhi produced by her colleague at the radio station, and earned a PhD in Gandhian thought at the University of Bombay.
• She taught political science and ran the politics department at the university.
• She also taught at Wilson College for 30 years.
• She was also the president of the Gandhi Peace Foundation.
• In 1998, she was awarded India’s highest civilian honor, the Padma Vibhushan.
• She lived a simple life and never married or had children.
• She died on 11 August 2000 at the age of 80.

Why is it in the News?

The Maharashtra cabinet recently decided to ask the Ministry of Railways to rename Mumbai Central Station after Nana Jagannath Shankarseth.

Who was Nana Jagannath Shankarseth?

• Nana Jagannath Shankarseth was a social reformer, educationist, and philanthropist and often described as the “architect” of Mumbai (then Bombay).
• He made extremely valuable contributions in terms of both ideas and money to multiple sectors, to lay a strong foundation for the city.
• Shankarseth was greatly inspired by the legendary merchant and philanthropist Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy.
• As a social reformer and community leader, Shankarseth earned the goodwill of both Indians and the British.
• He became the first Indian to be nominated to the Legislative Council of Bombay.

Shankarseth’s Most Significant Contributions:

• Education: Shankarseth was deeply committed to the growth and spread of education in Bombay, and donated land owned by his family for educational institutions.
  • Like many social reformers of his age, he believed that Indians could progress through education.
  • He also worked for the education of girls and women.
• Shankarseth founded the Native School of Bombay, which was renamed first as the Bombay Native Institution, and then as the Board of Education.
  • Finally, this institution evolved into the prestigious Elphinstone College.
• Museum, Temples: Shankarseth was among the wealthy donors who helped promote Dr Bhau Daji Lad Museum in Byculla, which was designed by a famous London-based architect.
  • The Bhawani Shankar Temple near Nana Chowk was Shankarseth’s tribute to his late mother Bhawanibai Murkute.
  • He also built a Ram temple.
• Railways: The first train in India ran between Boribunder and Thane on April 16, 1853.
  • The 34-km project was undertaken by the Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company.
  • The committee that gave the project impetus included Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy and Nana Shankarseth.

Why is it in the News?

Post-Independence, the revival of the crafts sector began with Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay who strongly championed the handicrafts movement for the role it could play in social and economic upliftment.

About Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay:

• Kamaladevi was born in April 1903 in a liberal Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmin family in Mangalore (now Mangaluru).
  • She completed her primary education at the local St Ann’s Convent.
  • Growing up in a land with a rich cultural heritage, especially of the music and dance form Yakshagana, she developed a taste for traditional art forms.
  • After her father’s untimely death, Kamaladevi moved to her maternal uncle’s house.
  • There, she met renowned freedom fighters, including Gopalkrishna Gokhale, Srinivasa Shastri, Ramabai Ranade and Annie Besant.
• Kamaladevi was married off at the age of 14 and widowed two years later.
  • Unperturbed by these life events, she joined Queen Mary’s College in Madras (now Chennai) for higher studies.
  • There, she met Sarojini (Chattopadhyay) Naidu’s brother Harindranath Chattopadhyay which led to their wedlock.
  • However, their marriage ended over incompatibility issues and this, too, created history – Kamaladevi was the first legal divorce granted through an Indian court of law.
• Kamaladevi played a prominent role in political reforms and India’s freedom struggle.
  • She was the first woman to contest the Madras provincial elections.
  • Though she lost by a narrow margin, she got recognition and was appointed secretary of the All-India Women’s Conference.
  • She joined Indian National Congress in 1927 and was elected to the All-India Congress Committee within a year.
• During the Salt March to Dandi, she convinced Gandhi to give women equal opportunity to be in the forefront of the march.
  • Later, she joined Seva Dal and trained women activists.
  • However, the British government banned Seva Dal and threw Kamaladevi into jail.
  • There, she contracted jaundice. Having experienced the pathetic condition of the prison hospital, she built a hospital for inmates upon release.
  • Kamaladevi got attracted to socialism and took up the problems of laborers and peasants.
• During World War II, she visited America and met several political activists, mostly blacks, and shared with them India’s non-violent approach to freedom struggle.
  • The British got wind of her activism and banned her from returning to India.
  • Unmoved, Kamaladevi continued on her journey, visiting South Africa, China, Japan and Vietnam.
• Kamaladevi was inarguably the embodiment of women’s empowerment.
  • She was an advocate of female sexual freedom and birth control.
  • Her remarriage after widowhood and legal divorce from her second marriage were symbolic of her self-empowerment.
  • She acted in many films (a Kannada film, too) when the film industry was not considered a respectable place for women.
• Indeed, Kamaladevi’s immense travel and experiences shaped her as a secular, socialist world citizen.
  • Such were her ideals that led to her building the city of Faridabad to rehabilitate some 50,000 craftsmen who moved to India from Pakistan during Partition.
  • Post-independence, she helped revive Indian handicrafts and built institutions for a ‘New India’-- to name a few, the National School of Drama, Bharatiya Natya Sangha, Lady Irwin College, Sangeet Natak Academy, Central Cottage Industries Emporium, World Craft Council, Craft Council of India, and the Delhi Craft Council.
• Kamaladevi was a prolific writer, too and wrote 18 books altogether, touching upon women’s issues, Indian handicrafts and her foreign visits.
  • She published her autobiography, “Inner Recesses, Outer Spaces: Memoir” (1986).
  • She received several awards in recognition of her public service, like Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan, the Ramon Magsaysay Award and the UNESCO Award.
  • She died in Mumbai on October 29, 1988, aged 85.

Why is it in the News?

Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi’s recent remarks about the 19th-century social reformer Ayya Vaikundar — that he was Lord Vishnu incarnated to prevent the destruction of Sanatan Dharma — have evoked sharp reactions in the state, from politicians as well as Vaikundar’s followers.

Who was Ayya Vaikundar?

• Ayya Vaikundar, born in 1809, is revered as a social reformer and the founder of the Ayyavazhi sect, primarily in southern Tamil Nadu.
• His teachings focused on equality, fraternity, and the eradication of caste-based discrimination, challenging the established religious and social hierarchies of the time.
• At a time when rigid casteism and caste-based atrocities were the norm, Vaikundar introduced measures to challenge these divisions.
• He organized Samapanthi-bhojana or community eateries for people from all backgrounds.
• He would send his disciples to the homes of lower castes to eat with them.
• When lower castes were not allowed to fetch water from wells used by upper caste Hindus, Vaikundar initiated the digging of common wells, called Muthirikinarus.
  • At a time when priests threw vibhuti and sandal paste at devotees from a distance to avoid touching them and lower castes were not allowed to enter temples at all, Vaikundar introduced Thottu Namam, in which he inspired priests to apply the sacred paste on devotees’ forehead, irrespective of their caste.
• The paste would be applied in the form of a lamp, indicating the soul and God, representing the form of God inside every life.
• Vaikundar also encouraged all devotees to wear turbans and dhotis, promoting equality.
• He initiated the Thuvayal Panthy programme, teaching vegetarianism and discipline to followers, who spread these teachings across Tamil Nadu.
• He established Nizhal Thangals as community worship spaces, which did not have any idol or deity, and only Tamil was used for worship.
  • These community worship centers also had community kitchens and even basic schools.
• He pioneered education for the lower castes and opposed discriminatory taxes.
• One of his significant interventions was the introduction of simplified, inclusive marriage customs without a Brahmin priest or Sanskrit mantras.

Why is it in the News?

Four of the 20 relics of Lord Buddha preserved at the National Museum are being taken to Thailand for a month-long exposition beginning recently, in a rare trip abroad for the delicate antiquities recovered more than a century ago.

About the Relics of Lord Buddha:

• The relics of Lord Buddha and his disciples Arahata Sariputra and Arahata Maudgalayana are known as the ‘Kapilvastu Relics.’
• The relics date back to around the 4th or 5th Century BC.
• They were found in Bihar’s Piprahwa — a site that is believed to be the ancient city of Kapilvastu.
  • Piprahwa today is located in Uttar Pradesh’s Siddharthnagar district.
• The relics were discovered by a team of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) officials in the 1970s.
  • The ASI conducted excavations at Piprahwa from 1971-77 under the supervision of the archaeology director KM Srivastava.

History:

• Lord Buddha achieved Mahaparinirvana at the age of 80 in Kushinagar.
• The Mallas of Kushinagara cremated his body with ceremonies befitting a ‘Universal King’ (‘cakravartin’).
• His holy relics, from the funeral pyre, were collected, divided and given by Brahmin priest Dhona of Kushinagar to kings and priests.
  • The eight shares were distributed among Ajatashatru of Magadha, the Licchavis of Vaishali, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, Mallas of Kushinagar, Bullies of Allakappa, the Mallas of Pava, the Koliyas of Ramagrama and a Brahmana of Vethadipa.
  • The sacred relics were commemorated in eight different stupas.
• Two more stupas came into existence, one over the urn in which the relics had been collected and one over the embers.
• Thus, stupas erected over the bodily relics of Buddha (Saririka-stupas) are the earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
• It is stated that Ashoka (circa 272-232 BC), being an ardent follower of Buddhism, opened up seven of these eight stupas, and collected a major portion of the relics for enshrinement within innumerable stupas built by him to popularise Buddhism and spread dharma.
• In 1898, the discovery of an inscribed casket by William Claxton Peppé, a British colonial engineer and an estate manager at a Buddhist stupa site at Piprahwa, was an epoch-making incident.
  • The inscription on the lid referred to the relics of Buddha and his community.
• The bone relics present in the stone coffer were presented to King Rama V of Thailand.
• The relics were further divided into three shares and gifted to Thailand, Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
  • In Thailand, the holy relic has been enshrined in a chedi on the top of Suwanbanphot, Bangkok.
• Every year, during the Loi Krathong Festival, there is a seven-day and seven-night celebration, which has become a tradition to worship the Buddha’s relics.

Why is it in the News?

The newly discovered Harappan settlement at Lodrani village in the Kutch region of Gujarat has sparked widespread interest in the fascinating remains of this ancient civilisation, making it an important site for archaeological exploration and research.

Features of Harappan site Morodharo:

• Morodharo is a fortified settlement of the Harappan era, with the fortification measuring 102 m to the west and 58 m north to the south.
  • The thickness of the wall is 3.3 m on average.
• Morodhara has a 10x10 m platform on the southwest side and a well on the northeast side.
• Burial cairns have been found at Morodharo.
  • A cairn is an intentionally constructed mound of stones, typically created for marking a location or serving as a burial mound.
• Harappan pottery with perforated jar sherds, reserved slipware and terracotta cakes have also been unearthed.
•  All these items have a striking resemblance to those found in Dholavira.

About Harappan Civilization:

• The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley civilization was South Asia's first urban civilization, flourishing concurrently with Mesopotamia and Egypt.
• It encompassed the most extensive territory, covering approximately 800,000 square kilometres, compared to its contemporaries.
• Prominent cities during the Harappan period included Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in present-day Pakistan, along with Dholavira, Lothal, and Surkotada in Gujarat, India, among others.
• Urban planning in Harappan cities followed a meticulous grid layout, with streets intersecting at right angles, dividing the cities into neat rectangular blocks.
• The streets and alleys were deliberately designed for efficient movement, accommodating carts and pedestrians, often featuring covered drains alongside.
• For defence and security, the cities were enclosed by sturdy walls made of mud bricks, shielding against intruders and natural calamities.
• Each city was structured into an elevated citadel and a lower town, with the former housing monumental structures like granaries and administrative buildings.
• Residential areas comprised multi-story brick houses clustered around courtyards, some equipped with private wells and well-ventilated bathrooms.
• A sophisticated drainage system ensured efficient waste disposal, with individual house drains connected to street-level drainage networks.
• Granaries and storage facilities were strategically positioned to manage surplus agricultural yields, reflecting advanced urban planning and resource management.

Why is it in the News?

The study by ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (ICAR-IVRI), Izatnagar, Bareilly has found the exact status of EEHV and its subtypes circulating among the Asian elephant population in India.

What is Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV)?

• Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) is responsible for one of the most devastating viral infectious diseases in elephants worldwide, especially young Asian elephants.
• EEHV is a double-stranded DNA virus that is classified in the family Herpesviridae.
• The mortality rate is very high (70-85%) and death occurs within a short period (2-4 days).
• In India, the incidence of EEHV-HD was first reported in 1997.
• 9 of 15 potential cases were confirmed from Southern India in wild free-ranging calves in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu forest reserves, and Madras Zoo.
• Transmission of the disease: EEHV is mostly spread through mucosal secretions which include:
• Saliva, Breast milk, Nasal secretions, Trunk to trunk contacts etc
• The disease can only affect elephants and is not infectious to humans or other animals.
• Symptoms: Some elephants show symptoms such as reduced appetite, nasal discharge and swollen glands.
• Treatment: Treatment involves a combination of strategies such as antiviral therapy, aggressive fluid therapy to counter haemorrhaging, immuno-stimulant drugs like selenium and Vitamins C and E, as well as antipyretics and analgesics to manage fever.
• It's important to note that there is no definitive cure for herpesviruses in animals or humans since these viruses typically enter a latent state.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, scientists at the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) have detected seismogenic liquefaction characteristics within the dynamically active Kopili Fault (KF) zone.

About Kopili Fault Zone:

• The Kopili Fault extends from the western part of Manipur up to the tri-junction of Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
• It covers a distance of about 400 km and is closer to the Himalayan Frontal Thrust.
• The Kopili fault bisects the Meghalaya Plateau and isolates the Mishmi block from the main part of the plateau.
• The Kopili fault is almost passing through the Kopili River.
• The river Kopili rises in the North Cachar Hills District in Borail Range at an altitude of 1525 meters.
• From a field study, it is observed that the Kopili Fault region is moving in the northeast direction at an average velocity of 28.397N mm/yr and 40.227E mm/yr.
• This region is characterized by heightened seismic activity, classified within the most critical Seismic Hazard Zone V.
• The geological dynamics are attributed to collisional tectonics, where the Indian Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate.
• The fault itself is a transpressional fracture, producing dextral strike-slip earthquakes in the lower crust.
• The Kopili fault zone, a tectonic depression filled by the alluvium of the Kopili River and its tributaries, has experienced numerous seismic events, notable among them being the 1869 earthquake (magnitude 7.8) and the 1943 earthquake (magnitude 7.3).