Why is it in the News?

Recently, scientists have created plant-based plastic that doesn't create cancer-causing microplastics because 97% of it breaks down in the environment.

What is Microplastics?

• Microplastics are small plastic particles measuring less than 5 millimeters in diameter.
• These particles, which are distinguished from larger "macroplastics" like bottles and bags, stem from both commercial product development and the breakdown of larger plastics.
• Microplastics are commonly found in a variety of products, including cosmetics, synthetic clothing, plastic bags, and bottles.
• Unfortunately, many of these products can easily enter the environment as waste.
• Composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked in polymer chains, microplastics often contain additional chemicals such as phthalates, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA).
• There are two categories of microplastics: primary and secondary.
  • Primary microplastics are intentionally designed for commercial use, including in cosmetics and microfibers shed from textiles like clothing and fishing nets.
  • Secondary microplastics, on the other hand, result from larger plastic items breaking down due to environmental factors such as sunlight and ocean waves.
• Understanding the sources and types of microplastics is crucial for addressing their impact on the environment, wildlife, and human health, ultimately promoting more sustainable production and waste management practices.

Environmental Impacts of Microplastics:

• Microplastics pose significant environmental concerns due to their resistance to breaking down into harmless compounds, much like larger plastic items.
  • Consequently, both primary and secondary microplastics accumulate and endure once introduced into the environment.
• In marine ecosystems, microplastics have the potential to amalgamate with harmful chemicals before being consumed by marine organisms.
  • Despite efforts, conventional water treatment facilities struggle to completely eliminate microplastics from water sources.
• Additionally, microplastics contribute to air pollution as they are present in dust and airborne fibrous particles, further highlighting their pervasive impact on various environmental systems.

Why is it in the News?

The Congress has hailed as an “important first step” the Supreme Court’s notice to the Election Commission and the Centre on a plea seeking a complete count of VVPAT slips and said the matter should be decided before the Lok Sabha polls commence.

What is the Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)?

• The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail, or VVPAT system, was first introduced in 2014 for the first time during the 2014 Lok Sabha Elections.
• The ECI conducted pilot tests of VVPAT systems in a few constituencies in 2011, and after successful trials, VVPAT was gradually deployed across all polling stations in subsequent elections.
• It is connected to Electronic Voting Machines (EVM) and enables voters to confirm that their votes were cast as intended.
• The concept of VVPAT was to enhance the credibility and transparency of EVMs.

What are VVPAT Slips?

• VVPAT slips are an integral part of the EVMs used in elections.
• It provides a physical paper trail for voters to verify that their vote has been correctly recorded by the EVM.
• It ensures transparency and accountability in the electoral process by allowing voters to verify their vote before casting it finally.
• The VVPAT produces a paper slip that permits the voter to confirm the accuracy of their vote on the EVM.
• This slip displays the name and symbol of the party chosen by the voter.
• Additionally, the machine features a transparent window through which the voter can observe the printed slip.
• Subsequently, the slip is securely deposited into a sealed compartment within the machine.
• However, in the event of a dispute, this sealed box can be opened for further examination.

Controversies Surrounding VVPAT:

• Despite its intended purpose of enhancing transparency, VVPAT has been subject to several controversies over the years.
• Some critics have raised concerns about the reliability of VVPAT systems, citing instances of malfunctioning printers, paper jams, and discrepancies between electronic and paper records.
• The Opposition parties within the INDIA bloc have been advocating for the full counting of VVPATs, to bolster public trust in the EVMs, which itself has been subjected to intense scrutiny recently.
• Their concern has mostly stemmed from allegations of delay in the printing and displaying of VVPAT slips for every vote, which they claim can significantly increase the time required for vote counting.

Supreme Court’s intervention in VVPATs:

• In April 2019, the SC asked the poll panel to increase the number of EVMs that undergo VVPAT physical verification from one to five per assembly segment in a parliamentary constituency.
• In the month of May the same year, the Supreme Court dismissed a writ petition seeking 100 percent counting of VVPAT in the 2019 Lok Sabha elections.
• Earlier in the same month, the Supreme Court had also dismissed the review petition filed by opposition parties to increase verification of VVPAT-EVM to 50 percent.

Why is it in the News?

Eight years after Parliament passed the Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act, 2016, the Union Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs is in the process of reviewing the functioning of the Act, including by holding regular meetings with homebuyers and setting up a data collection unit within the Ministry.

What Is Real Estate (Regulation & Development) Act, 2016 (RERA)?

• The Real Estate (Regulation & Development) Act, 2016 is an act of the Parliament of India that strives to protect home buyers and helps escalate the investment made in the real estate industry.
• It was established under this Act to regulate the real estate sector.
• Additionally, it acts as the adjudicating body for faster dispute resolution related to the real estate industry.

The Primary Objectives of the Act:

• Ensuring Transparency: Promoting transparency in the real estate sector regarding the sale of flats, apartments, plots, buildings, or any real estate project.
• Establishing Dispute Resolution: Setting up an adjudicating mechanism to swiftly resolve disputes.
• Protecting Buyer Interests: Safeguarding the interests of buyers/allottees in the real estate domain.
• Building Trust: Fostering trust between buyers and promoters by leveraging regulatory authority.
• Furthermore, the Act mandates that Real Estate Regulatory Authorities establish and maintain a web portal containing pertinent details of all registered real estate projects for public access.

Reasons for RERA Implementation:

• The introduction of RERA was necessitated by challenges faced by the Indian real estate sector since 2012, including factors such as unemployment, recession, low rental yield, inventory pile-up, and ambiguous tax and arbitration frameworks.

Projects Covered by RERA:

• RERA covers commercial and residential projects, including plotted developments, that exceed 500 square meters or comprise more than 8 units.
• Additionally, projects lacking a Completion Certificate prior to the Act's commencement are subject to its provisions.

Benefits of RERA Implementation:

• Standardization: RERA ensures uniformity in the real estate sector concerning aspects like carpet areas and common areas, thereby preventing malpractices such as alterations in layout, area, agreements, and specifications.
  • It also mandates disclosure of details regarding brokers, architects, and contractors.
• Timely Delivery: Developers are obligated to adhere to scheduled delivery timelines for office spaces or homes.
  • Failure to comply may result in stringent penalties or imprisonment for the developer.
• Regulatory Compliance: RERA mandates obtaining clearance from government departments before the sale of any residential or commercial property.
• Financial Transparency: Developers are required to maintain separate bank accounts for each project, enhancing financial transparency and accountability.
• Warranty Protection: Buyers are empowered to report any structural defects in the building to the developer within one year of possession, with the developer obligated to rectify them free of charge.

Challenges Associated with RERA:

• Limited Scope: The regulations of RERA do not extend to ongoing projects or those stalled due to clearance issues, potentially leaving certain projects outside its jurisdiction.
• Approval Delays: Delays in approval and clearance from government agencies may impede the timely completion and delivery of real estate projects, affecting both developers and buyers.
• Exemption for Small Developers: Small-scale developers overseeing projects smaller than 500 square meters are exempt from RERA's provisions, and registration with the regulatory authority is not compulsory for them.
• Project Launch Delays: Projects cannot be launched without necessary clearances, which may result in delays in the commencement of new projects.

Why is it in the News?

The Supreme Court last week said it will review its April 2021 order to bury underground all power lines in the habitat of the Great Indian Bustard (GIB), after the Centre found the order “practically impossible to implement” over long distances.

About Great Indian Bustard:

• Great Indian Bustard (GIB) is an agro-grassland bird endemic to the Indian Subcontinent.
• Known locally as Godawan in Rajasthan, it is a Critically Endangered species as per the IUCN Red List.
• It belongs to the family Otididae and exhibits sexual dimorphism.
• The GIB is an omnivorous bird.
• The species has a current viable population of around 150 individuals in India and mainly survives in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan which holds about 100 individuals.
• Of the remaining individuals, these birds are found in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh respectively.
• With fewer than 150 individuals, they are caught in a deadly maze of power lines that crisscross its last refuge in the Kutch and Thar deserts of western India.

Why Do Power Lines Kill Bustards?

• Power lines pose a risk to all flying birds.
• In 2020, a study carried out by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) in 4,200 sq km of GIB habitat in and around Desert National Park (DNP) in Rajasthan estimated that power lines killed around 84,000 birds of multiple species every year.
• GIBs are especially vulnerable because of their narrow frontal vision and large size.
  • Unlike some birds that have a panoramic vision around the head, species like raptors and bustards have extensive blind areas above their heads.
  • When they stretch their head forward to scan the ground below, they fly blind in the direction of travel.

Arguments of the Centre:

• The Centre said taking lines of 66 KV and higher voltage underground was not feasible for the evacuation of bulk power due to constraints such as transmission losses, maintenance challenges, multiple cable joints, increased time requirements, and safety concerns.
• The cost implications of undergrounding all power lines in the large area identified are very heavy — running into many thousands of crores and the cost of externalities that will burden the nation was “huge” and “disproportionate”.
• Harnessing renewable power from high-potential areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat was “essential for meeting rising power demand and India’s international commitments on climate change”.

Other threats faced by GIB:

• Free-ranging dogs pose a significant threat to the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) population, particularly in the Thar landscape, with feral packs responsible for a substantial portion of Chinkara depredation in the Desert National Park (DNP) as of 2017.
• Although sporadic hunting of GIBs persists, the prevalent use of pesticides in agricultural areas poses a more substantial risk to the bird's survival.
• Additionally, habitat loss, particularly the decline of grasslands essential for nesting, and diminishing support from local communities are growing concerns.

Why is it in the News?

The Kerala High Court has held that a child charged with offenses under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012, is to be prosecuted as per the provisions of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) (JJ) Act.

About the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act (POCSO Act):

• Enacted in 2012, the POCSO Act stands as India's pioneering legislation dedicated to addressing child sexual abuse comprehensively.
• Under the administration of the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD), its primary objective is safeguarding children under 18 from sexual assault, harassment, and exploitation, alongside establishing Special Courts to adjudicate such cases swiftly and efficiently, ensuring justice and protection for victims.

Salient Features of the Act:

• The POCSO Act adopts a gender-neutral approach, defining a child as "any person" under 18, ensuring inclusivity for all victims of child sexual abuse.
• It delineates various forms of sexual abuse, encompassing penetrative and non-penetrative assault, sexual harassment, and pornography.
• Certain circumstances, such as mental illness or abuse by a trusted individual like a family member, escalate the severity of sexual assault as per the Act.
• Individuals involved in trafficking children for sexual exploitation are subject to punishment under the Act's provisions on abetment.
• Attempting to commit an offense under the Act incurs penalties up to half the prescribed punishment for the completed offense.
• There's no time limit for reporting abuse, empowering victims to come forward at any point, regardless of when the abuse occurred.
• The Act mandates reporting of sexual abuse, penalizing failure to do so with imprisonment or fines.
• It includes child-friendly procedures for reporting, evidence recording, investigation, and trial, ensuring a supportive environment for victims.
• These procedures include recording the child's statement in a preferred location, preferably by a female officer, and avoiding aggressive questioning or character attacks.
• Medical examinations occur in the presence of a trusted individual, and the child is shielded from seeing the accused during testimony.
• Trials are held in camera, with the Special Court aiming to complete proceedings within a year of cognizance, prioritizing swift justice for victims.

Amendment to the Act:

• In 2019, the Act underwent its inaugural amendment to intensify penalties for particular offenses, aiming to dissuade perpetrators and safeguard the dignity of childhood.
• This amendment introduced the death penalty for aggravated penetrative sexual assault against children.
• Additionally, it empowered the imposition of fines and sentences of up to 20 years in prison to combat child pornography.