In News:

An adult tigress and three cubs have been spotted in the Mhadei wildlife sanctuary in Goa marking the first time evidence of the species has been recorded in the forests bordering the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka since 2020.

Key Highlights:

Location and Geography:

• It is located near Chorla Ghat, between North Goa and Belgavi, and borders Maharashtra and Karnataka.
• The sanctuary is traversed by the Mhadei River, which meets the sea at Panaji, Goa.

Ecological Significance:

• It is part of the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage site, and shares this ecosystem with Mollem National Park and other protected areas in Goa.
• The sanctuary is integral to wildlife corridors connecting the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra) and Kali Tiger Reserve (Karnataka), critical for tiger conservation.

Flora and Fauna:

• It is home to diverse wildlife, including the critically endangered Long-billed vultures that nest at Vazra Falls.
• The region supports a variety of flora and fauna due to its biodiversity-rich Western Ghats ecosystem.

Conservation Status and Recommendations:

• Goa is the only state in India to have its entire portion of the Western Ghats under state protection, with Mhadei WLS being a key area.
• The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) has recommended that Mhadei WLS be designated as a tiger reserve to enhance protection efforts.
• The sanctuary is a potential candidate for inclusion under Project Tiger.
• In 2020, a Royal Bengal tigress and her cubs were tragically poisoned due to human-animal conflict.

Mahadayi Water Dispute:

• The Mahadayi (Madei, Mandovi) River is a source of dispute between Karnataka and Goa regarding water sharing.
• Karnataka seeks to divert water from the river to the Malaprabha River basin for drinking water supply in several districts, through the Kalasa-Banduri Nala project.
• The matter is currently being heard in the Supreme Court.

In News:

IndiaAI and Meta have announced the establishment of the Center for Generative AI, Srijan (????) at IIT Jodhpur, along with the launch of the “YuvAi Initiative for Skilling and Capacity Building” in collaboration with the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), for the advancement of open source artificial intelligence (AI) in India.

Key Initiatives Launched

• Center for Generative AI, Srijan (????) at IIT Jodhpur:
  • Focus on Generative AI (GenAI) research and innovation.
  • Meta’s support for ethical and responsible development of AI technologies.
  • Aim to empower researchers, students, and practitioners with the tools for responsible AI deployment.
  • Focus Areas: Open science, AI policy advisory, and indigenous AI application development.
• YuvAi Initiative for Skilling and Capacity Building:
  • Target: Empower 100,000 students and young developers (ages 18-30) with AI skills.
  • Core Focus: Leveraging open-source Large Language Models (LLMs) for real-world solutions.
  • Skills Development: Generative AI, open-source tools, and sector-specific AI applications (healthcare, education, agriculture, smart cities, mobility, and financial inclusion).
  • Partnership: Collaboration with AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education).

Strategic Goals and Outcomes

• Research and Innovation:
  • Strengthen India’s AI ecosystem through groundbreaking research and collaborations.
  • Focus on open-source AI and indigenous AI solutions for national challenges.
  • Empower India to lead in AI through ethical and responsible AI deployment.
• AI Talent Development:
  • Bridge the AI talent gap by training young developers in open-source AI technologies.
  • Develop AI solutions for critical sectors like healthcare, education, agriculture, smart cities, and financial inclusion.
  • Program Components:
    • GenAI Resource Hub with courses, case studies, and open datasets.
    • Unleash LLM Hackathons for students to propose AI solutions for real-world challenges.
    • Support for AI startups through an Innovation Accelerator.

Sectoral Focus and Impact

• Healthcare: AI for diagnostics, personalized medicine, and healthcare delivery.
• Education: AI tools for enhancing learning outcomes and personalized education.
• Agriculture: AI solutions for precision farming, pest control, and crop management.
• Smart Cities: AI in urban planning, traffic management, and public services.
• Mobility: AI applications in transportation, logistics, and urban mobility.
• Financial Inclusion: AI in fintech, digital payments, and financial services for underserved populations.

Additional Programs and Opportunities

• AICTE Collaboration: Mobilizing technical institutions across India to build AI capabilities.
• Master Training Activation Workshops: To introduce foundational AI concepts to students.
• Mentorship and Grants: Top AI solutions from hackathons will receive mentoring, seed grants, and market support.
• Student Startups: AI Innovation Accelerator will incubate 10 student-led AI startups experimenting with open-source models.

In News:

DRDO completed development trials of the 4th Generation miniaturised Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORAD).

Key Details:

• Trial Location: Conducted at Pokhran Field Firing Ranges, Rajasthan.
• Importance: VSHORAD addresses the Indian Army's need to replace legacy Igla systems, with past efforts making little progress.
• Recent Procurement: Army acquired small volumes of Igla-S through emergency procurement.
• Production Collaboration: Two production agencies involved in Development cum Production Partner (DcPP) mode for VSHORAD missiles.
• Trial Dates: Successful tests held on October 3 and 4, 2024.

Key Performance Metrics:

• Maximum Range and Altitude: Interception against high-speed aerial targets.
• Hit-to-Kill Capability: Demonstrated success in engaging targets in various scenarios (approaching, receding, crossing).

System Overview:

• Type: Fourth generation man-portable air defence system (MANPADS).
• Developer: Research Centre Imarat (RCI) in collaboration with other DRDO labs and industry partners.

Capabilities:

• Designed to neutralise low altitude aerial threats at short ranges.
• Features include Dual-band IIR Seeker, miniaturised Reaction Control System, and integrated avionics.
• More portable and lightweight than existing missile systems in the Army's arsenal.

In News:

The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), a Washington DC-based bipartisan U.S. federal government agency, has released a country update on India, flagging “collapsing religious freedom conditions”.

• Agency Overview:
  • The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) is an independent, bipartisan U.S. federal commission established under the 1998 International Religious Freedom Act (IRFA).
  • Its primary functions include reviewing global religious freedom violations, providing policy recommendations to U.S. leaders, and publishing annual reports.
• Current Concerns:
  • USCIRF's latest report indicates a “collapse” in religious freedom conditions in India, particularly worsening throughout 2024, especially around national elections.
• Legal and Policy Changes:
  • Strengthening of discriminatory legislation, including:
    • State-level anti-conversion and anti-terrorism laws.
    • Implementation rules for the 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA).
    • Passage of a State-level Uniform Civil Code (UCC) Bill in Uttarakhand.
• Violations and Incidents:
  • Expropriation of Places of Worship:
    • Authorities have facilitated the construction of Hindu temples on former mosque sites.
    • Increased attacks on religious minorities, particularly following the consecration of the Ayodhya temple in January 2024.
  • Targeting of Religious Minorities:
    • Arrests of Christians accused of forced conversions under anti-conversion laws.
    • Anti-cow slaughter laws exploited by vigilante groups to target Muslims, Christians, and Dalits, often with little to no legal repercussions for perpetrators.
• Recommendations:
  • USCIRF urges the U.S. State Department to designate India as a “Country of Particular Concern” due to severe violations of religious freedom.

About USCIRF

• Composition: Comprised of nine commissioners appointed by the U.S. President or Congressional leaders, supported by non-partisan staff.
• Objective: To monitor and recommend actions on religious freedom violations aligned with international human rights standards.

In News:

The Union Cabinet approved the PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE) Scheme to promote electric mobility in the country.

Objective:

• Accelerate electric vehicle (EV) adoption
• Establish essential charging infrastructure
• Promote cleaner and sustainable transportation

Key Highlights

• Significant Occasion: Launched on the eve of Mahatma Gandhi's 155th Birth Anniversary, aligning with the vision of ‘Swachh Bharat’ and ‘Swachh Vahan’.
• Financial Commitment: Union Cabinet approved a financial outlay of ?10,900 crore for the scheme over two years (approved on September 11, 2024).

Key Features of the PM E-DRIVE Scheme

1. Subsidies/Demand Incentives:
   • Total of ?3,679 crore allocated for:
     • 24.79 lakh electric two-wheelers (e-2Ws)
     • 3.16 lakh electric three-wheelers (e-3Ws)
     • 14,028 electric buses (e-buses)
2. E-Voucher Introduction:
   • Aadhaar-authenticated e-vouchers for EV customers
   • Simplifies access to incentives, with real-time generation for dealers.
3. E-Ambulances:
   • ?500 crore allocated for deployment
   • Standards to be developed with relevant ministries.
4. E-Buses:
   • ?4,391 crore for 14,028 e-buses in nine major cities
   • Focus on replacing scrapped state transport unit buses.
5. E-Trucks:
   • ?500 crore for incentivizing electric trucks
   • Scrapping certificates required for incentives.
6. Public Charging Stations:
   • ?2,000 crore to install:
     • 22,100 fast chargers for electric four-wheelers (e-4Ws)
     • 1,800 for e-buses
     • 48,400 for e-2Ws/3Ws
7. Test Agency Modernization:
   • ?780 crore for upgrading Ministry of Heavy Industries test agencies to accommodate new EV technologies.

In News:

Recent research by scientists at the National Institute of Advanced Science (NIAS) has underlined the links between climate change, La Niña and air quality. 

Key Points on Air Quality Outlook for Delhi and North India

• Delayed La Niña & Monsoon Retreat:
  • Erosion of optimism for improved air quality this winter in Delhi.
  • Significant pollution challenges anticipated in early winter months.
  • Possible relief in December and January, contingent on La Niña strengthening.
• Impact of Stubble Burning:
  • If stubble burning occurs at half the intensity of previous years, November air quality may deteriorate.
• Research Insights:
  • Study by National Institute of Advanced Science (NIAS) links climate change, La Niña, and air quality.
  • Notable air quality improvement in winter 2022-23 was linked to La Niña conditions.
  • Late onset of La Niña contributes to air quality uncertainty.
• Changing Pollution Dynamics:
  • Shift from local emission-centric views to broader climatological factors is necessary.
  • Air quality in Delhi worsens during winter due to high humidity, calm winds, and poor pollutant dispersion.
• La Niña Delays:
  • Delayed La Niña onset means weak winds and stagnant conditions, worsening pollution.
  • Expected development between September and November 2024.
• Effects of Stubble Burning:
  • North-north-westerly winds could carry pollution from stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana into Delhi.
• Potential Outcomes of Late La Niña Onset:
  • If La Niña develops in December or January, may improve air quality slightly.
  • However, a longer, severe winter could exacerbate pollution issues due to lower inversion layers.
• NIAS-SAFAR Model Predictions:
  • Early La Niña could have worsened air quality in the peninsular region.
  • Early onset might have improved northern air quality.
• Link to Climate Change:
  • Evidence suggests extreme air pollution correlates with climate change.
  • Emphasizes the need for rigorous mitigation efforts and broader airshed management.
• Call for Rethinking Air Quality Strategies:
  • Focus on integrating larger climatic factors into air quality policies.
  • Prioritize health-centric measures through collaborative efforts with scientific bodies.

What is La Niña?

• La Niña (or ‘The Little Girl’ in Spanish) is a phase of what climatologists refer to as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a phenomenon that is a key driver of global natural climate variability.
• ENSO is characterised by changes in sea temperatures along the tropical Pacific Ocean due to atmospheric fluctuations overhead. These changes alter and interfere with the global atmospheric circulation, and influence weather worldwide.
• Occurring in irregular cycles of anywhere between two to seven years, ENSO has three phases — warm (El Niño or ‘The Little Boy’ in Spanish), cool (La Niña), and neutral.
• During the neutral phase, the eastern Pacific (off the northwestern coast of South America) is cooler than the western Pacific (around Philippines and Indonesia). This is because prevailing trade winds — caused by Earth’s rotation, between 30 degrees north and south of the equator — move east to west, sweeping warmer surface water along with them. The relatively cool waters from below rise to the surface to replace the displaced water.
• These wind systems weaken in the El Niño phase, leading to lesser displacement of warmer waters off the American coasts. Consequently, the eastern Pacific becomes warmer than usual. The opposite happens in the La Niña phase i.e. trade winds become stronger than usual and push larger quantities of water to the western Pacific.

Introduction

India's digital revolution has significantly transformed governance and service delivery in recent years by creating digital identities, secured payments and transactions. This progress has paved the way for a thriving digital ecosystem across various sectors, including finance, healthcare, education, and retail, positioning India as a leader in citizen-centric digital solutions.

For a similar transformation of the Agriculture Sector, the Union Cabinet Committee, chaired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi approved the 'Digital Agriculture Mission' with a substantial financial outlay of Rs. 2,817 Crore, including a central government share of Rs. 1,940 Crore, on September 2, 2024.

The Digital Agriculture Mission is designed as an umbrella scheme to support various digital agriculture initiatives. These include creating Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), implementing the Digital General Crop Estimation Survey (DGCES), and supporting IT initiatives by the Central Government, State Governments, and Academic and Research Institutions.

The scheme is built on two foundational pillars:

• Agri Stack
• Krishi Decision Support System.

Additionally, the mission includes ‘Soil Profile Mapping’ and aims to enable farmer-centric digital services to provide timely and reliable information for the agriculture sector.

AgriStack: Kisan ki Pehchaan

AgriStack is designed as a farmer-centric Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) to streamline services and scheme delivery to farmers. It comprises three key components:

1. Farmers' Registry

2. Geo-referenced village maps

3. Crop Sown Registry

• A crucial feature of AgriStack is the introduction of a 'Farmer ID', similar to Aadhaar card, serving as a trusted digital identity for farmers.
  • These IDs, created and maintained by the State Governments/ Union Territories, will be linked to various farmer-related data, including land records, livestock ownership, crops sown, and benefits availed.
• The implementation of AgriStack is progressing through partnerships between the Central and State Governments, with 19 states having signed MoUs with the Ministry of Agriculture. Pilot projects have been conducted in six states to test the creation of Farmer IDs and the Digital Crop Survey.
• The six states include Uttar Pradesh (Farrukhabad), Gujarat (Gandhinagar), Maharashtra (Beed), Haryana (Yamuna Nagar), Punjab (Fatehgarh Sahib), and Tamil Nadu (Virudhnagar).

Key targets include:

• Creating digital identities for 11 crore farmers over three years (6 crore in FY 2024-25, 3 crore in FY 2025-26, and 2 crore in FY 2026-27)
• Launching the Digital Crop Survey nationwide within two years, covering 400 districts in FY 2024-25 and all districts in FY 2025-26

 2. Krishi Decision Support System

• The Krishi Decision Support System (DSS) will integrate remote sensing data on crops, soil, weather, and water resources into a comprehensive geospatial system.

 3. Soil Profile Mapping

Under the mission, detailed soil profile maps on a 1:10,000 scale for approximately 142 million hectares of agricultural land have been envisaged, with 29 million hectares of soil profile inventory already being mapped.

• Further under the Digital Agriculture Mission, the Digital General Crop Estimation Survey (DGCES) will be used for crop-cutting experiments to provide precise yield estimates, enhancing agricultural production accuracy.
• The mission is expected to create direct and indirect employment in agriculture, providing opportunities for around 2,50,000 trained local youth and Krishi Sakhis.
• By leveraging modern technologies like data analytics, AI, and remote sensing, the mission will improve service delivery for farmers, including streamlined access to government schemes, crop loans, and real-time advisories.

Key Components of the Mission

The Digital Agriculture Mission focuses on grassroots implementation, targeting farmers as the primary beneficiaries. Some of the key benefits of the mission include:

• Digital authentication for accessing services and benefits, reducing paperwork and the need for physical visits.
• Enhanced efficiency and transparency in government schemes, crop insurance, and loan systems through accurate data on crop area and yield.
• Crop map generation and monitoring for better disaster response and insurance claims.
• Development of digital infrastructure to optimize value chains and provide tailored advisory services for crop planning, health, pest management, and irrigation.

Digital Public Infrastructure for Agriculture

• Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced in the Union Budget 2024-25 that the Government, in partnership with states, will implement Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) for agriculture over the next three years.
• This initiative will cover farmers and their lands, with a digital crop survey for Kharif planned for 400 districts this year. The goal is to update registries with details of 6 crore farmers and their lands.
• The Union Budget 2023-24 had previously introduced the DPI for agriculture, which aims to provide comprehensive data on farmers, including demographic details, land holdings, and crops sown. The DPI will integrate with state and central digital infrastructures to offer a range of farmer-centric services, including information on livestock, fisheries, soil health, and available benefits. 

Conclusion

• The Union Cabinet also approved six major schemes alongside the Digital Agriculture Mission, with a total outlay of Rs 14,235.30 crore.
• These initiatives include Rs 3,979 crore for Crop Science aimed at ensuring food security and climate resilience by 2047, and Rs 2,291 crore for strengthening Agricultural Education, Management, and Social Sciences to support students and researchers. Rs 1,702 crore is allocated for Sustainable Livestock Health and Production to boost incomes from livestock and dairy, while Rs 1,129.30 crore is designated for Sustainable Development of Horticulture to increase income from horticulture. Additionally, Rs 1,202 crore will be invested in strengthening Krishi Vigyan Kendra, and Rs 1,115 crore towards Natural Resource Management.
• These comprehensive approaches leverage digital technologies to enhance productivity, efficiency, and sustainability in India's agricultural sector, potentially transforming the lives of millions of farmers across the country. By extending the digital revolution to agriculture, India aims to further solidify its position as a global leader in innovative, technology-driven solutions for critical sectors of the economy.

In News:

Recently two representatives from the LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) experiment, working 1.5 km underground at the Sanford Underground Research Facility in South Dakota, announced that they had placed the tightest restrictions yet on the identities of dark matter particles, resulting in a null finding that clarified which identities these particles could not have, leading to a sense of resignation rather than disappointment among the physics community, as similar experiments like XENON-nT in Italy and PandaX-4T in China have yielded empty results for decades despite significant efforts.

Background on Dark Matter

• Definition: Dark matter makes up most of the universe's mass, contributing to its structure.
• Composition: Likely consists of previously unknown particles that:
  • Do not interact with photons.
  • Remain stable over billions of years.
• Key Question: Can dark matter interact with atomic nuclei and electrons?

Experimental Strategies

• Proposed Method:
  • Introduced by physicists Mark Goodman and Ed Witten in 1985.
  • Concept: Use a “sail” (a chunk of metal) deep underground to detect dark matter interactions.
  • Objective: Measure unknown mass and interaction rate (cross-section) of dark matter particles.

Scattering Cross-Section

• Concept:
  • Similar to light interaction with different media (vacuum, glass, rock).
  • Cross-sections indicate how readily a particle can scatter.
• Previous Limits: Proposed limits as small as 10−38cm210^{-38} text{cm}^210−38cm2.
• Current Achievements: Recent experiments have ruled out cross-sections as small as 10−44cm210^{-44} text{cm}^210−44cm2.

Challenges Ahead

• Neutrino Interference:
  • As detectors increase in size, they also detect more noise from neutrinos, complicating dark matter detection.
  • Both PandaX-4T and XENONnT report issues with neutrino signals.
• Resignation in Community:
  • Scientists had hoped for clearer results before facing the challenge of distinguishing dark matter from neutrinos.

Alternative Research Avenues

• Focus on Lighter Particles:
  • Exploring dark particles lighter than atomic nuclei for easier detection.
• Technological Development:
  • Advancing technologies to measure minimal energy transfers using special materials.

Conclusion

• Ongoing Effort: The search for dark matter continues to unite scientific disciplines and require innovative approaches.
• Human Ingenuity: The pursuit reflects a broader effort to understand the universe, drawing on collective expertise and creativity.

In News:

A recent government survey has shed light on the demographics of workers engaged in the hazardous cleaning of urban sewers and septic tanks across India. This initiative, part of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment's NAMASTE programme, highlights significant disparities within this labor sector.

Key Findings

• Community Representation: An overwhelming 91.9% of the 38,000 workers profiled belong to marginalized communities:
  • Scheduled Castes (SC): 68.9%
  • Other Backward Classes (OBC): 14.7%
  • Scheduled Tribes (ST): 8.3%
  • General Category: 8%
• Mortality Rates: Between 2019 and 2023, at least 377 individuals died while performing hazardous cleaning tasks, underscoring the dangers associated with this work.

The NAMASTE Programme

• Objective: The NAMASTE programme aims to mechanize sewer work to prevent fatalities linked to manual cleaning. It seeks to transition workers into safer, more sustainable roles as "sanipreneurs" by providing safety training, equipment, and capital subsidies.
• Background: This programme replaces the earlier Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS), focusing on the more technical aspects of hazardous cleaning rather than manual scavenging.
• Namaste is a Central Sector Scheme of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (MoSJE) as a joint initiative of the MoSJE and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
• The Scheme has been approved with an outlay of Rs. 360 crore for four years from 2022-23 to 2025-26.
• NAMASTE aims to achieve the following outcomes:
  • Zero fatalities in sanitation work in India
  • All sanitation work is performed by skilled workers
  • No sanitation workers come in direct contact with human faecal matter
  • Sanitation workers are collectivized into SHGs and are empowered to run sanitation enterprises
  • All Sewer and Septic tank  sanitation workers (SSWs) have access to alternative livelihoods
  • Strengthened supervisory and monitoring systems at national, state and ULB levels to ensure enforcement and monitoring of safe sanitation work
  • Increased awareness amongst sanitation services seekers (individuals and institutions) to seek services from registered and skilled sanitation workers

Progress and Coverage

• Implementation: Since the scheme's inception, 3,326 urban local bodies (ULBs) have begun profiling workers, with many reporting minimal or no workers engaged in hazardous cleaning.
• Data Collection: The government is gathering data from over 3,000 ULBs across 29 states and union territories to better understand the scope and risks associated with this labor.

In News:

A rare collision of two cyclones has led to significant environmental impact, including the flattening of thousands of trees within the sanctuary.

Key Details:

• Location: Situated in the Mulugu district of Telangana, near the borders of Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh. Approximately 100 km from Warangal and 250 km from Hyderabad.
• Establishment: Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1952 by the Nizam government of Hyderabad.
• Area: Covers around 806 square kilometers.

Geographic Features

Rivers:

• Dayyam Vagu: A significant water source that divides the sanctuary into two parts.
• Godavari River: Flows through the sanctuary, contributing to its rich biodiversity.

Flora

• Vegetation: Dense tropical dry deciduous forest.
• Key Species: Includes teak, bamboo, madhuca, and terminalia trees, creating a lush habitat.

Fauna

• Wildlife: Home to diverse species such as:
  • Mammals: Tiger, leopard, panther, wolf, wild dogs, jackals, sloth bear, chousingha, blackbuck, nilgai, sambar, spotted deer, and four-horned antelope.
  • Reptiles: Notable for its population of mugger crocodiles and snakes, including cobras, pythons, and kraits.

Cultural Significance

• Temple: The famous Sammakka-Saralamma Temple is located within the sanctuary.

In News:

• The 8th edition of India Water Week (IWW) 2024 was held from September 17-20, 2024, at the Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi.
• Organized by the Ministry of Jal Shakti, this prestigious international event has established itself as a key platform for collaboration in water resource management.
• With participation from global water experts, government leaders, and private-sector representatives, the event aimed to address the critical challenges of water management, foster innovation, and promote sustainable water practices.

Theme and Focus

The theme for India Water Week 2024 was "Partnerships and Cooperation for Inclusive Water Development and Management." This theme underscored the importance of cross-sectoral and international collaboration to address the 21st-century's growing water challenges and the need for integrated efforts in water conservation, management, and equitable access to water resources.

India Water Week: An International Forum

• Since its inception in 2012, India Water Week has grown into a pivotal event in global water diplomacy, offering a platform for dialogue, innovation, and knowledge sharing.
• Each edition focuses on a specific water-related issue, providing policymakers, experts, and industry leaders the opportunity to present solutions and explore cooperative strategies.

 International WASH Conference

• A key highlight of IWW 2024 was the International WASH Conference, organized by the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS), Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• This conference focused on global collaboration in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH), aiming to address pressing sanitation challenges and promote hygiene standards.
• The conference was held between 17th-19th September 2024, in New Delhi. This three-day gathering, centered on the theme ‘Sustaining Rural Water Supply’, offered a platform for knowledge exchange, showcasing innovations, and sharing best practices aimed at addressing global WASH challenges, with a special focus on achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). 

Key Takeaways from India Water Week 2024

The India Water Week 2024 concluded with several important takeaways:

• Collaboration and Cooperation: Water security can only be achieved through partnerships across sectors and borders.
• Innovation in Water Management: Startups and technological innovations are key to addressing the future challenges of water resource management.
• Community Participation: Local communities play a crucial role in water conservation efforts, and their involvement is vital to achieving sustainable development.
• Policy Recommendations: The event produced several policy recommendations for sustainable water governance, addressing challenges in climate resilience, infrastructure development, and groundwater management.

Conclusion

India Water Week 2024 was a landmark event that brought together a diverse group of stakeholders to address the complexities of water management in the 21st century. The event paved the way for a more sustainable and inclusive approach to water development through partnership, cooperation, and innovation, ensuring equitable access to water resources for all.

In News:

The Indian government recently approved the Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment (Bioe3) Policy, which prioritizes the production of "smart proteins". This initiative aligns with broader national goals of achieving a sustainable, circular bioeconomy and a Net Zero carbon economy.

What Are Smart Proteins?

Smart proteins are alternative proteins derived from unconventional sources such as:

• Algae
• Fungi
• Insects
• Fermentation processes
• Lab-grown cells

This category also includes plant-based proteins, designed to replicate the taste and nutritional value of animal products without the need for livestock farming.

Environmental Benefits

The production of smart proteins offers significant environmental advantages:

• Water Use: 72-99% less water compared to conventional meat.
• Land Use: 47-99% less land required.
• Water Pollution: 51-91% reduction in pollution.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: 30-90% fewer emissions.

Health and Safety

With rising incomes, India's protein consumption has increased, from 9.7% of calories in 1991 to 11% in 2021. Smart proteins:

• Enhance food safety by reducing the risk of zoonotic diseases.
• Foster ethical consumption and align with traditional Indian dietary preferences.

Objectives of the BioE3 Policy

The Bioe3 Policy aims to:

• Foster high-performance biomanufacturing.
• Promote sustainable growth and innovation in biotechnology.
• Support the transition towards a Net Zero carbon economy.

By emphasizing the development of smart proteins, the Bioe3 Policy represents a strategic move towards a more sustainable and resilient food system in India.

Overview

Global nuclear disarmament remains a top priority for the United Nations, initially emphasized in the General Assembly’s first resolution in 1946. Despite historical efforts, approximately 12,100 nuclear weapons still exist today, with ongoing modernization plans in many countries.

Key Historical Milestones

• 1945: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing an estimated 213,000 people.
• 1946: First UN resolution identifies nuclear disarmament as a key goal.
• 1959: General Assembly endorses the goal of general and complete disarmament.
• 1963: Opening of the Partial Test Ban Treaty.
• 1978: First Special Session of the General Assembly dedicated to disarmament.
• 1996: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty opens for signature.
• 2017: Adoption of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Recent Developments

• 2019: U.S. withdrawal from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.
• 2023: Russia suspends participation in the New START Treaty, raising concerns over arms control.

The International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons

• Established: December 2013, following a high-level meeting on nuclear disarmament.
• Observed: Annually on September 26.
• Purpose: Raise awareness about the dangers of nuclear weapons and promote their total elimination.

Goals of the International Day

• Enhance public education on the humanitarian risks associated with nuclear weapons.
• Mobilize international efforts towards a nuclear-weapon-free world.

Continuing Challenges

• The doctrine of nuclear deterrence remains central to the security policies of nuclear-armed states and their allies.
• No nuclear weapons have been destroyed under a treaty framework, and current disarmament negotiations are stagnant.
• Growing frustration among UN Member States over the slow progress in nuclear disarmament.

Mission Overview:

• Launched on October 1, 2021, as the second phase of the Swachh Bharat Mission.
• Aims for "Garbage-Free Status" in all urban areas by 2026.
• Focuses on 100% source segregation, door-to-door waste collection, and scientific waste management.

Legacy Waste Issues:

• Legacy waste consists of improperly collected and stored solid waste, often found in landfills and abandoned sites.
• Approximately 15,000 acres of prime land are buried under nearly 16 crore tonnes of legacy waste in India.
• The mission seeks to convert legacy dumpsites into green zones and establish scientific landfills to manage untreated waste.

Current Progress:

• Of 2,424 identified dumpsites (each with over 1,000 tonnes of waste), only 470 have been fully remediated (16% reclaimed).
• 1,224 sites are under ongoing remediation, while 730 remain untouched.
• Out of 28,460 acres of affected land, 4,552 acres have been reclaimed, with 23,908 acres still to be addressed.

State Performance:

• Tamil Nadu: 837 acres reclaimed (42% of its total dumpsite area).
• Gujarat: Leads in percentage, reclaiming 75% of its landfill area (698 out of 938 acres).

Financial Aspects:

• Central assistance of ?3,226 crore has been approved for remediation efforts.
• States and Union Territories must provide a matching share to access these funds.

Challenges:

• Legacy waste management involves complexities such as radiological characterization, leachate management, and fire control.
• Current municipal solid waste generation in India is around 150,000 tonnes per day.

Historical Context:

• The original Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM-U 1.0) launched on October 2, 2014, focused on making urban areas Open Defecation Free (ODF).

In News:

Massive Greenland landslide sent seismic waves around earth for 9 days. One year ago, roughly 25 million cubic metres of ice and rock splashed into the Dickson Fjord in Greenland and displaced the water enough to give rise to a 200-metre high mega-tsunami; in this way, a melting glacier led to a planet-wide tremor, and researchers warn that it may not be the last

Seismic Observations

• Detection: Unusual seismic signals recorded by stations worldwide, characterized by a single frequency, unlike typical earthquake vibrations.
• Classification: Initially termed a "USO" (unidentified seismic object) due to its atypical properties.
• Duration: Waves persisted for nine days, unlike typical aftershock patterns.

Investigation Efforts

• Collaboration: Involved over 68 researchers from 40 universities across 15 countries.
• Data Sources: Combined seismic data, satellite imagery, water level monitors, and a classified bathymetric map from the Danish Navy.
• Conclusion: The seismic waves resulted from a massive landslide caused by the collapse of Hvide Støvhorn peak, which triggered a series of events leading to the tsunami.

Mega-Tsunami and Seiche

• Tsunami Details:
  • Created by the avalanche crashing into the fjord, displacing water significantly.
  • Resulted in waves that reflected off fjord walls, reaching heights of nearly 110 meters due to the fjord's unique shape.
• Seiche Phenomenon:
  • Oscillations in the fjord persisted for over nine days, reflecting the energy from the landslide.
  • Maximum amplitude of the seiche recorded at 7.4 meters, with a frequency of 11.45 MHz.

Climate Context

• Global Warming Impact: Thinning glaciers contributed to instability in the region, making such landslides more likely.
• Future Predictions: Researchers warn of increased frequency and scale of similar events as climate change continues to affect Arctic and subarctic regions.

Key Takeaways

• The Greenland landslide serves as a reminder of the unpredictable consequences of climate change, including massive geological events.
• The incident highlights the interconnectedness of natural systems and the potential for localized events to have global repercussions.

In News:

The Army has inducted 100 robotic mules, known as Multi-Utility Legged Equipment (MULE), under the fourth tranche of emergency procurements (EP).

• Purpose: These robotic mules are designed for surveillance and transporting light loads across challenging terrains, especially in high-altitude areas.
• Specifications:
  • Endurance: Capable of operating for up to three years.
  • Temperature Range: Functions effectively in extreme temperatures from -40°C to +55°C.
  • Payload Capacity: Can carry up to 15 kg.
  • Mobility: Can climb stairs, steep hills, and traverse obstacles; waterproof and able to cross rivers.
  • Sensing Abilities: Equipped with electro-optics and infrared capabilities for object recognition.
  • Control Mechanisms: Operable via an easy-to-use remote control, Wi-Fi, or Long-Term Evolution (LTE) connections.
  • Mission Programming: Can be programmed for specific missions using waypoints or pre-recorded tasks.
  • Combat Integration: Capable of integration with small arms for military applications.
• Logistics Drones: Logistics drones are currently undergoing trials to enhance support and movement in forward areas, particularly in high-altitude conditions.
• High-Altitude Habitat Evaluation: A new tent designed for extreme cold environments (operating at temperatures down to -40°C) is under evaluation. This tent, called Peak Pods, is intended for use in sub-zero conditions.
• Evaluation Locations: The tent has been tested in three high-altitude sites:
  • Leh (11,500 feet)
  • Daulat Beg Oldie (16,700 feet)
  • Durbuk (12,500 feet)
• Significance: These advancements reflect the Army's focus on technological innovations to enhance operational capabilities in high-altitude areas, especially following the 2020 stand-off with China in Eastern Ladakh.
• Funding and Timelines: The EP process allows contracts up to ?300 crore, with a requirement for delivery within one year.

In News:

An order issued by the District Magistrate directed the owners of air guns to deposit their hunting weapons at the offices of respective village authorities.

Amur Falcons: An Overview

Scientific Classification:

• Common Name: Amur Falcon
• Scientific Name: Falco amurensis
• Family: Falconidae

Physical Characteristics:

• Size: Small raptors, approximately 28-30 cm in length.
• Distinctive Features: Dark plumage with white wing linings; reddish-orange eyes and feet.

Migration Patterns:

• Breeding Grounds: Southeastern Russia and northern China.
• Migratory Route: They leave their breeding areas in autumn, traveling south to round the Himalayas, stopping in Nagaland, and then heading towards the Western Ghats before crossing the Indian Ocean to reach South Africa.
• Distance: These falcons undertake an incredible journey of around 22,000 kilometers annually, making them one of the most remarkable long-distance migrants among raptors.

Diet:

• Primarily insectivorous, they also consume small vertebrates when available.

Conservation Status:

• IUCN Status: Least Concern
• Legal Protection:
  • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule IV
  • Convention on Migratory Species (CMS): Appendix II

Recent Conservation Efforts:

• Ban in Manipur: The Tamenglong district administration has imposed a ban on hunting, catching, killing, and selling Amur falcons in preparation for their migratory arrival.
• Tagging Program: In 2016, radio transmitters were used to monitor their migration routes.
• Awareness Initiatives: An annual ‘Amur Falcon Festival’ in Tamenglong district promotes awareness and celebrates these migratory birds.

Threats:

• Amur falcons face various threats including habitat loss, hunting, and illegal trapping.

Cultural Significance:

• Locally known as ‘Kahuaipuina’ in Manipur and ‘Molulem’ in Nagaland, these birds hold ecological and cultural significance, particularly in regions that serve as critical stopover points during migration.

Summary

The Amur falcon is a small but remarkable migratory raptor known for its long-distance travels from its breeding grounds in Asia to Africa. Conservation efforts in India, particularly in the Tamenglong district of Manipur, aim to protect these birds from hunting and habitat loss, ensuring their continued survival and highlighting their importance in the ecosystem.

In News:

Prime Minister Narendra Modi arrived in the United States, where he will participate in the fourth Quad Leaders Summit in Wilmington, Delaware.

What is the Quad Grouping?

The Quad, or Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, is an informal strategic alliance comprising India, the United States, Japan, and Australia. Originally formed in response to the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, the Quad aims to foster collaboration in various areas, but its primary focus has become countering the influence of China in the Indo-Pacific region.

Historical Background

• 2004: The Quad began as a response to the Indian Ocean tsunami, facilitating disaster relief.
• 2007: Japanese PM Shinzo Abe formalized the alliance.
• 2017: Amid rising Chinese assertiveness, the Quad was revitalized, expanding its objectives beyond maritime security.

Structure and Characteristics

• The Quad is not a formal organization; it lacks a secretariat or permanent decision-making body like the EU or UN.
• It focuses on strengthening bilateral and multilateral ties among member nations.
• Unlike NATO, the Quad does not include collective defense provisions but conducts joint military exercises to demonstrate unity.

Key Developments

• In 2020, the Malabar naval exercises expanded to include Australia, marking the first joint military exercises of the Quad since its resurgence.
• The first in-person summit took place in Washington, D.C. in 2021.

Objectives of the Quad

The Quad has outlined several primary objectives:

1. Maritime Security: Ensuring safe and open sea routes in the Indo-Pacific.
2. Climate Change: Addressing environmental challenges collaboratively.
3. Investment Ecosystem: Creating opportunities for economic investment in the region.
4. Technological Innovation: Promoting advancements and cooperation in technology.
5. Public Health: Collaborating on initiatives like vaccine diplomacy during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Expansion and Future Directions

The Quad members have discussed expanding the partnership to include countries like South Korea, New Zealand, and Vietnam. In a joint statement, they reaffirmed their commitment to a free, open, resilient, and inclusive Indo-Pacific governed by international law.

Challenges and Opposition

China views the Quad as an effort to encircle and contain its influence. Beijing has criticized the grouping, labeling it as a strategy that incites discord among Asian nations.

In news:

NASA is preparing to launch the Europa Clipper mission, which aims to investigate Jupiter's icy moon, Europa.

Key Details:

• Objective: This mission will place a spacecraft in orbit around Jupiter to conduct a thorough study of Europa, focusing on its potential habitability.
• Significance: Europa Clipper will be NASA's first mission specifically designed to explore an ocean world beyond Earth. Europa is believed to have a subsurface ocean beneath its icy surface, which raises the possibility of supporting life.
• Spacecraft Specifications:
  • The spacecraft measures 100 feet (30.5 meters) from end to end and 58 feet (17.6 meters) across, making it the largest NASA spacecraft ever built for a planetary mission.
• Mission Plan:
  • Europa Clipper will orbit Jupiter and conduct 49 close flybys of Europa to gather critical data regarding its environment and potential habitability.
• Instrumentation:
  • Equipped with nine scientific instruments and a gravity experiment that leverages its telecommunications system, the spacecraft will maximize data collection by operating all instruments simultaneously during each flyby. This approach will allow scientists to compile comprehensive data layers, creating an in-depth understanding of Europa.
• Power Source:
  • The spacecraft is outfitted with large solar arrays to harness sunlight for its energy needs while operating in the challenging environment of the Jupiter system.

Solar Array

A solar array is a collection of solar panels interconnected to generate electrical power. When combined with other components like an inverter and battery, it forms a complete solar energy system.

In News:

IMEC is an important initiative that can add to India's maritime security and faster movement of goods between Europe and Asia, said Union Minister of Commerce & Industry at the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) India-Mediterranean Business Conclave 2024 in New Delhi.

Key Details:

• Corridors:
  • East Corridor: Connects India to the Gulf.
  • Northern Corridor: Links the Gulf to Europe.
• Components:
  • Railroad: Provides a reliable and cost-effective cross-border ship-to-rail transit network.
  • Ship-to-Rail Networks: Integrates road, sea, and rail transport routes.
  • Road Transport: Complements the overall transport infrastructure.
• Expected Benefits:
  • Increased Efficiency: Enhances transit efficiency and reduces costs.
  • Economic Unity: Promotes economic integration and job creation.
  • Environmental Impact: Lowers greenhouse gas emissions.
  • Transformative Integration: Connects Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.
• Additional Features:
  • Infrastructure: Includes laying cables for electricity and digital connectivity, and pipes for clean hydrogen export.
• Implementation:
  • MoU Commitments: Participants will collaboratively address technical design, financing, legal, and regulatory aspects.
  • Action Plan: A meeting is planned within 60 days to develop an action plan with specific timetables.

Geoeconomic Perspective

1. Economic Integration and Interdependence:
   • Prosperity Through Integration: IMEC aims to foster trade and investment among India, the Middle East, and Europe, potentially leading to mutual prosperity and regional stability.
   • Building Bridges: Aligns with the liberal international order by promoting economic interdependence to reduce tensions and create shared interests.
   • Support from Major Powers: Backed by the US, Europe, and India, signaling a strong commitment to economic ties and regional stability.
2. Economic Potential:
   • Infrastructure and Trade Routes: Enhances infrastructure and trade routes, boosting economic activity, trade volumes, and investment opportunities.
   • Regional Development: Promotes job creation and development in economically disadvantaged areas along the corridor.

Geopolitical Perspective

1. Strategic Rivalry with China:
   • Countering the BRI: IMEC is seen as a strategic counterbalance to China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), offering an alternative aligned with US, European, and Indian interests.
   • Regional Influence: Aims to limit China’s influence in the Middle East and South Asia by establishing a competing corridor.
2. Geopolitical Alliances:
   • Aligning Interests: Involves strategic partnerships among the US, Europe, and India, reflecting concerns about China’s global strategy and shifting power dynamics.
   • Rivalry and Competition: The IMEC could be viewed as a global positioning move, responding to China’s growing influence and securing strategic interests.

Reasons for Joining the IMEC

1. Economic Enhancement:
   • Boosts Indo-Gulf Relations: Enhances trade and economic ties with the Arab Gulf, addressing infrastructure gaps.
   • Regional Connectivity: Links India with key partners like Israel and Jordan, boosting economic opportunities.
2. Strategic Trade Routes:
   • Alternative Routes: Complements existing routes like Chabahar Port and INSTC, connecting India to southern Eurasia.
   • Bypassing Choke Points: Offers a shorter route to Eastern Mediterranean and Western Europe, avoiding strategic choke points.
3. Energy and Trade Opportunities:
   • Access to Resources: Provides potential access to Eastern Mediterranean gas fields.
   • Trade Bloc Connectivity: Links India with the EU and GCC, opening up growth opportunities.
4. Geopolitical Aspirations:
   • Global Power Ambitions: Supports India’s goal to enhance global influence and integrate with eastern and western neighbors.
   • Economic Growth: Leverages economic integration to support development and influence.
5. Infrastructure Development:
   • Economic Integration: Facilitates infrastructure creation for increased trade volumes and regional stability.

In News:

• Recently, the Union agriculture minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan launched two initiatives — a fund aimed at boosting farm-sector startups, and a single-window portal to process investments — as part of a slew of measures being taken by Prime Minister Narendra Modi-led government in its third term to bolster the farm economy.

Key Details:

• AgriSure is a ?750-crore fund established to support agricultural startups.
• Krishi Nivesh Nidhi is a portal designed to expedite the clearance of project proposals.
• Both initiatives aim to enhance farm incomes.

Awards for Credit Disbursal:

• Scheduled banks were recognized for their credit disbursals under the government’s agriculture infrastructure fund.
• First prize: State Bank of India (SBI).
• Second prize: HDFC Bank.
• Third prize: Canara Bank.

Significance of Agriculture Sector:

• Agriculture contributes 16% to India’s GDP.
• Farmers play a crucial role as both producers and consumers in the economy.

PM Modi’s Strategy to Double Farmers’ Incomes:

• The strategy includes:
  • Increasing output.
  • Reducing input costs.
  • Ensuring profitable prices.
  • Promoting crop diversification.
  • Supporting natural farming.
  • Enhancing value addition to crops.

Details of AgriSure Fund:

• Blended capital fund with a total corpus of ?750 crore:
• ?250 crore each from the Department of Agriculture and NABARD.
• ?250 crore to be raised from financial institutions.
• Managed by NabVentures, a subsidiary of NABARD.
• Provides both equity and debt support to startups and agripreneurs.
• Focuses on high-risk, high-impact activities within the agriculture value chain.

Agriculture Infrastructure Fund:

• Mobilized projects worth ?78,000 crore with ?45,000 crore in financing so far.
• Expanded areas of coverage approved by the Union Cabinet on August 28.
• Aims to create durable farm assets, such as warehouses and processing plants.
• Can be used by agricultural produce marketing committees (APMCs) for market facility improvements.

Funding and Loan Details:

• Part of the ?20-lakh crore stimulus package introduced during the Covid-19 pandemic.
• Total funding of ?1 lakh crore over four years:
  • ?10,000 crore for 2020-21.
  • ?30,000 crore each for the subsequent three financial years.
• Provides medium-to-long term debt financing for rural projects.
• Interest subvention of 3% per annum on loans up to ?2 crore for seven years, with the government covering part of the interest.

Why is it in the News?

Next month, on June 3, there will be a planetary alignment that may actually allow you to witness six planets align in the sky.

What is a Planetary Alignment?

• Planetary alignment is a term used to describe the positioning of planets in the solar system such that they appear to be in a straight line or close to one when viewed from a specific vantage point, for us that's Earth.
• It is an astronomical event that happens when, by coincidence, the orbits of several of the planets of the Solar System bring them to roughly the same side of the Sun at the same time.
• This phenomenon is more an illusion of perspective rather than the planets being in a perfect line in space.
• It’s important to emphasise that the planets aren’t forming a straight line in space – that’s a much rarer astronomical event called a syzygy.
  • However, because all the planets, including the Earth, orbit around the Sun in roughly the same orientation (moving in which we call the “Plane of the Ecliptic”), when they’re on the same side of the Sun as each other, they appear to form a line in the sky when we view them from Earth.”
• Planetary alignments are rather common within themselves, especially when two, three, or even four planets align in the sky.
  • Five or more planets aligning, however, is less common.
• April 8, 2024, was the last time the planets were all in alignment.

Which planets will align?

• Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune will form a near-straight line, offering an extraordinary opportunity to witness this cosmic phenomenon.

Which planets will be visible?

• While six planets align, not all of them will be visible to the naked eye, due to their vast distance from Earth.
• Meanwhile, the Moon will also play a spoilsport as it distorts the visibility.
• Mercury and Jupiter will be tricky to see in the sky due to their proximity to the Sun in their orbit.
• However, Mars and Saturn will be visible to the naked eye, though very dim.
• Meanwhile, keen observers will need telescopes or high-powered binoculars to spot the distant planets Uranus and Neptune.

Why is it in the News?

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which stars forge elements inside their cores.

What is Nucleosynthesis?

• Nucleosynthesis is the process by which atomic nuclei undergo nuclear reactions and decay to form new nuclei.
• It is responsible for the production of new elements in the universe.
• Nucleosynthesis occurs in various environments, such as during the Big Bang, in the cores of stars through nuclear fusion, and in black hole accretion disks through nuclear burning.
• The process is temperature-dependent, and the rates of nuclear reactions are influenced by the temperature of the environment.
  • The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) model is a fundamental theory that explains the evolution of the early universe and predicts the abundance of light elements.
• Nucleosynthesis plays a crucial role in understanding the composition of the universe and can provide insights into physics beyond the standard model.

Types of nucleosynthesis:

• Nucleosynthesis occurs in several different environments and phases of the universe's evolution, including:
• Stellar Nucleosynthesis: This occurs within stars and is responsible for producing most of the chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.
  • As stars age and undergo various stages of nuclear fusion, they synthesize elements up to iron in their cores, and heavier elements during supernova explosions at the end of their life cycles.
• Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: This took place during the early moments of the universe's existence, shortly after the Big Bang.
  • t primarily produced the lightest elements, hydrogen, and helium, along with trace amounts of lithium, beryllium, and boron.
• Cosmic Ray Spallation: High-energy cosmic rays interacting with interstellar matter can cause fragmentation of atomic nuclei, resulting in the production of lighter elements and isotopes.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, during the company's annual developer conference, Google unveiled an early version of Project Astra.

What is Project Astra?

• Project Astra is an experimental “multimodal” AI assistant developed by Google DeepMind.
• It's designed to be a versatile tool that can understand and respond to information from the real world through various means,  like text, voice, images, and even videos.
• This makes it different from current AI assistants that mostly rely on internet searches and user input. 
• Building on Google’s Gemini language model, Astra has multimodal capabilities to perceive visuals, sounds, and other real-world inputs.
• The aim is to create a universal AI helper that seamlessly assists us in daily life by comprehending the actual environment through sight and sound, not just text.
• Astra represents Google’s vision for next-gen AI assistants.

Key Features of Google's Project Astra:

• Visual Understanding: Astra can interpret and analyze visual input from its camera feed.
  • It identifies objects, reads text, and describes scenes and environments in detail, allowing users to show Astra something and ask questions about it.
• Voice Interaction: Astra supports natural conversation without the need to repeatedly use wake words.
  • It comprehends context and facilitates back-and-forth dialogue, even allowing users to interrupt its responses.
• Remembering Context: Astra retains memory of previous conversation parts, objects it has seen, and information provided by the user.
  • This contextual awareness enhances the fluidity of interactions.
• Multimodal Integration: Astra integrates visual and auditory inputs to form a comprehensive understanding of the current situation, correlating what it sees and hears to fully grasp the context.
• Real-Time Assistance: Astra delivers real-time assistance by rapidly processing sensor data and queries, ensuring a responsive and interactive user experience.

What are Multimodal AI Models?

• Multimodal AI models are advanced artificial intelligence systems that process and integrate multiple types of data inputs, such as text, images, audio, and video, to develop a comprehensive understanding of context.
• By combining these different modalities, these models enhance their ability to interpret complex scenarios more accurately than unimodal systems.
  • For instance, in autonomous vehicles, multimodal AI uses data from cameras, lidar, radar, and GPS for better navigation.
  • In healthcare, these models integrate medical images with patient history for improved diagnostics.
• Applications also include virtual assistants, which understand and respond to spoken commands while recognizing objects in images, and educational tools that combine text, video, and interactive content for richer learning experiences.
• Multimodal AI models are often implemented using deep learning techniques, which allow the model to learn complex representations of the different data modalities and their interactions.
• As a result, these models can capture the rich, diverse information present in real-world scenarios, where data often comes in multiple forms.

Why is it in the News?

For the first time, astronomers have observed the area right at the edge of a black hole where matter stops orbiting and plunges straight in at near-light speed.

What is the Plunging Region of a Black Hole?

• The plunging region of a black hole is an area where matter ceases to orbit the celestial object and instead falls directly into its incalculable depths.
  • This phenomenon was initially predicted by Albert Einstein's groundbreaking theory of general relativity, which continues to shape our understanding of the cosmos.
• As matter approaches a black hole, it is torn apart and forms a rotating ring known as an accretion disc.
• According to general relativity, there exists an inner boundary within this disc, beyond which nothing can maintain its orbit around the black hole.
  • Instead, the material is drawn towards the black hole at nearly the speed of light, marking the beginning of the plunging region.
• This region, situated just outside the event horizon, represents the point of no return for matter falling into a black hole.
• Despite the challenges posed by studying these enigmatic structures, researchers believe that investigating plunging regions could unveil new insights into the formation and evolution of black holes.
• Additionally, these studies may offer valuable information about the fundamental properties of space-time, potentially transforming our understanding of the universe and its most mysterious inhabitants.

What is a Black Hole?

• A black hole is a celestial phenomenon that arises from the remnants of a massive star that has exhausted its nuclear fuel and undergone gravitational collapse.
• It is characterized by an unfathomably dense core, known as a singularity, which is enveloped by a boundary called the event horizon.
• The event horizon serves as a point of no return; any matter or light that crosses this boundary is irrevocably drawn towards the singularity, making it impossible to escape the immense gravitational pull.

Black holes are classified into three categories based on their size and formation process:

• Stellar-mass black holes: These form when a massive star collapses at the end of its life cycle. They typically have masses ranging from approximately five to several dozen times that of our Sun.
• Supermassive black holes: Found at the centre of most galaxies, including our own Milky Way, these colossal structures boast masses that can reach billions of times the mass of the Sun.
• Intermediate-mass black holes: With masses between those of stellar mass and supermassive black holes, these entities are thought to form through the merger of smaller black holes or the collapse of dense clusters of stars.
• Due to their extreme nature, black holes have been the subject of extensive research and fascination in the scientific community.
• The study of these enigmatic structures continues to yield invaluable insights into the fundamental principles governing our universe.

Why is it in the News?

New research has found South African leopards originated from two unique clades in southern and central Africa approximately 0.8 million years ago.

What is a Mitogenome?

• DNA is found in the nucleus of cells and also in the mitochondrial genome, or mitogenome.
• Mitogenomes are DNA molecules that float around outside the nucleus of a cell.
• They store their own set of genetic information and are maternally inherited, which means they are only passed on from mother to offspring.
• Mitogenomes are a “genomic by-catch” when sequencing the whole genome.
  • They are so abundant in cells that it is very easy to extract them.
• Studying mitogenomes is a reliable way to track the ancestry of a species.
  • This is because genes mutate (change) at a regular rate over time.
• The changes in the mitogenome provide a picture of any species' evolution over hundreds of thousands of years.

What is DNA?

• DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid is the genetic material that codes the information for all the different processes that make an organism living like growth, replication, metabolism, etc.
• DNA is present in each cell (except for some viral species, RBCs, sieve cells, etc.) and is passed down from parents to their offspring. DNA is comprised of units called nucleotides.
• DNA is self-replicating, a long stretch of nucleotides.
• DNA is a form of nucleic acid and is one of the four major macromolecules that make up the living system.
• In eukaryotic cells, it is found in the nucleus of the cell whereas in prokaryotes it is found free-floating in the cell cytoplasm.
• Other than the nucleus DNA is also found in mitochondria, chloroplast, and in smaller forms called plasmid in certain bacterial species.

Why is it in the News?

China's latest scientific achievement, the High Energy Photon Source (HEPS), is poised to become Asia's first fourth-generation synchrotron light source which is scheduled to commence operations by the end of this year.

What is a Synchrotron?

• A synchrotron is a type of circular particle accelerator where particles travel in a loop.
• It functions by accelerating charged particles, typically electrons, through sequences of magnets until they approach the speed of light.

How Does It Work?

• Acceleration: Charged particles are accelerated through magnets.
• Production of Light: These high-speed electrons generate extremely bright light, known as synchrotron light.
  • This light, predominantly in the X-ray region, is millions of times brighter than conventional sources and 10 billion times brighter than the sun.
• Beamlines and Workstations: The intense light is directed down beamlines to experimental workstations for research purposes.

Applications:

• Research: Scientists use synchrotron light to study tiny matter such as atoms and molecules.
• By examining how a sample scatters, diffracts, absorbs, or reemits the synchrotron light, they can uncover details about its structure and chemical composition.

Global Presence:

• There are approximately 70 synchrotrons worldwide in various stages of development.
• They have varying technical specifications and uses, ranging from practical applications to fundamental theoretical research.

In India:

• India has a synchrotron facility known as the "Indus Synchrotron."
• It is located at the Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT) in Indore, Madhya Pradesh.
• The Indus Synchrotron is a third-generation synchrotron radiation source that is used for various research applications in fields such as materials science, biology, and environmental science.

What is the High Energy Photon Source (HEPS)?

• HEPS (High Energy Photon Source) is recognized as the brightest synchrotron X-ray source in Asia.
• Location: The HEPS facility is situated in Huairou, China, approximately 50 kilometres from Beijing.
• Acceleration Capabilities: HEPS is designed to accelerate electrons up to energies of 6 gigaelectron volts within its 36-kilometer circumference storage ring, producing high-energy X-rays for research purposes.
• Nanoscale Investigations: The high-energy X-rays generated by HEPS can penetrate deep into samples, allowing researchers to study intricate details at the nanometer scale.
• Diverse Research Applications: HEPS will cater to various research fields, including energy, condensed matter physics, materials innovation, and biomedicine, by providing access to 14 specialized beamlines.
• Superiority to Existing Synchrotrons: Compared to China's current most advanced synchrotron, the Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility (with a circumference of 432 meters), HEPS will offer a time resolution 10,000 times better.

Why is it in the News?

NASA is set to launch the two small satellites of the PREFIRE mission from New Zealand on May 22 aimed at filling in critical gaps in data from Earth's polar regions.

What is the PREFIRE Mission?

• PREFIRE (Polar Radiant Energy in the Far-InfraRed Experiment) is a NASA mission that involves sending two tiny twin spacecraft, known as CubeSats, to the Earth's polar regions to gather data on the heat energy radiated out to space and its impact on our climate.
• PREFIRE consists of two, 6U CubeSats with a baseline mission length of 10 months.
• These shoebox-sized satellites will orbit at altitudes between 292 and 403 miles, crossing paths in the atmosphere.

Objectives:

• The mission will help close a gap in understanding how much of Earth’s heat is lost to space, especially from the Arctic and Antarctica.
• Analysis of PREFIRE’s measurements will inform climate and ice models, providing better projections of how a warming world will affect sea ice loss, ice sheet melt, and sea level rise.
• Improving climate models can ultimately help to provide more accurate projections on the impacts of storm severity and frequency, as well as coastal erosion and flooding.
• By studying the far-infrared radiation emitted from these regions, PREFIRE will help improve the accuracy of climate models, enhancing our understanding of phenomena such as Arctic warming, sea ice loss, and ice-sheet melting.

The mission will help in:

• Uncover the reasons behind the Arctic warming more than 2½ times faster than the global average since the 1970s.
• Provide scientists with a clearer understanding of how efficiently far-infrared heat is emitted by materials such as snow and sea ice, and how clouds affect the amount of far-infrared radiation that escapes to space.
• Enhance predictions about future changes in the heat exchange between Earth and space, and how these changes will impact phenomena like ice sheet melting, atmospheric temperatures, and global weather patterns.

How will the Satellites Work?

• The mission with cube satellites about the size of a shoebox will be launched aboard an Electron launch vehicle.
• It is equipped with technology proven on Mars and will measure a “little-studied portion” of the radiant energy emitted by Earth.
• Two satellites carrying a thermal infrared spectrometer will be in asynchronous near-polar orbits and will be passing over a given spot on Earth at different times. To maximize coverage, they will be overlapping every few hours near the poles.
• The instruments weighing less than 6 pounds (3 kilograms) each will make readings using a device called a thermocouple, similar to the sensors found in many household thermostats.

Why is it Important to Study the Polar Regions?

• According to NASA, Earth's climate balance hinges on the equilibrium between the heat energy the planet receives from the Sun and the amount it radiates back into space.
• The difference between incoming and outgoing energy determines Earth's temperature and climate.
• The polar regions are crucial in this balance.
• Changes in the polar regions can significantly impact global weather patterns.
• Extreme storms, flooding, coastal erosion – all of these phenomena are influenced by what’s happening in the Arctic and Antarctic.
• This underscores the importance of understanding polar dynamics to predict and mitigate global climate effects.

Why is it in the News?

Israel for the first time used a seaborne missile defense system to shoot down a drone approaching from the Red Sea that had set off sirens in the port city of Eilat.

What is the C-Dome Defense System?

• The C-Dome is a naval version of Israel's Iron Dome air defense system, designed to protect against rocket and missile attacks.
• Drawing from Iron Dome's technology, C-Dome shares its 90% effectiveness rate and utilizes radars to detect and destroy short-range rockets with its missiles.

Operational Deployment and Integration:

• First unveiled in 2014 and declared operational in 2022, the C-Dome is mounted on Sa'ar 6-class corvettes and German-made warships.
• It employs the same interceptor as the Iron Dome but differs in its integration with the ship's radar for target detection, ensuring full-circular vessel protection.

Combatting Modern Threats:

• C-Dome's primary objective is to counter a wide range of modern maritime and coastal threats with high kill probability.
• Its successful deployment and performance underscore its pivotal role in safeguarding Israel's naval interests and assets against evolving security challenges.

About Iron Dome:

• Developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries, the Iron Dome is a cutting-edge air missile defense system that offers protection against short-range rockets by intercepting them above Israeli territory.
• With its multi-rocket handling capacity, Iron Dome became operational in 2011 and features:
  • All-weather capabilities for day and night functionality
  • Launching versatility with various interceptor missiles
  • A range of approximately 40 miles
  • Portable design for deployment on ships or land
  • Adaptive defense through reloadable interceptors

Iron Dome consists of three key elements:

• • Radar system for detecting incoming rockets
  • Command-and-control mechanism to evaluate threat levels
  • Interceptors are designed to neutralize incoming rockets before impact
• These components work in tandem to provide Israel with a robust and reliable defense against aerial threats.

Why is it in the News?

Recent government orders on attempts to increase local sourcing of solar modules to support India’s renewables manufacturing ecosystem have been widely reported in the media as ‘import restrictions’.

What is the Approved List of Models and Manufacturers (ALMM) List?

• The Approved List of Models and Manufacturers of Solar Photovoltaic Modules (ALMM) comprises government-approved manufacturers eligible for use in government projects, government-assisted projects, and schemes.
• ALMM aims to boost the domestic solar industry and reduce dependence on imports, particularly from China.

ALMM's Suspension and Reinstatement:

• The ALMM was kept in abeyance for two years to address concerns raised by renewable energy producers with pre-existing government contracts.
• During this period, India's domestic solar industry struggled to compete with cheap Chinese imports.
• To support local manufacturers, the government launched initiatives like the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme under the Atmanirbhar Bharat ('Self-Reliant India') Programme.
• With the PLI scheme enhancing the competitiveness of Indian manufacturers, the ALMM was reinstated in March 2024.
• The government believes that domestic companies can now meet India's solar equipment demand, making the ALMM an essential tool for promoting import substitution and self-reliance in the renewable energy sector.

Solar PV Imports:

• India heavily relies on solar cell and module imports, with China and Vietnam being the primary suppliers.
• Government data reveals that India imported approximately $11.17 billion worth of solar cells and modules over the past five years.
• As of 2023-24, China accounted for 53% of solar cell imports and 63% of solar PV modules.

China's Competitive Edge:

• Several factors contribute to China's dominance in solar PV exports:
  • Cost-effective manufacturing due to lower power costs
  • Government policies prioritizing the solar PV sector
  • Economies of scale and continuous innovation driven by growing domestic demand
• These advantages have made China the most cost-competitive location for producing solar PV components, making it challenging for other countries to match their production capabilities.

What is the Scope of Solar Energy in India?

• India's solar sector holds immense potential, driven by the government's target of achieving 500 GW of installed non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.
• Moreover, the country's rapid growth in electricity demand, fueled by economic activities and climate adaptation measures, positions solar power as a critical resource.
• Solar energy accounted for one-third of renewable energy generation from April 2023 to February 2024, showcasing its significance in India's energy mix.
• Despite an estimated solar power potential of 748.99 GW, the country has yet to fully exploit this resource.
• To harness this potential, the government is implementing various schemes and programs, paving the way for a sustainable and prosperous solar future.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, the US White House has officially instructed NASA to create a lunar time standard for international and private sector coordination on the Moon.

What is Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC)?

• Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC) is a lunar-based time system being developed by NASA in collaboration with other government agencies to establish a standardized time zone for the Moon.
• LTC aims to provide a precise timekeeping benchmark for lunar spacecraft and satellites, synchronizing communication between astronauts, bases, and Earth.

Importance of LTC:

• As lunar exploration and commerce expand, a unified time standard becomes essential for managing operations, ensuring transaction reliability, and coordinating logistics.
• Furthermore, LTC addresses the discrepancy in timekeeping between Earth and the Moon due to differences in gravity, as time ticks faster on the Moon, causing Earth-based clocks to lose an average of 58.7 microseconds per day.
• Establishing LTC will prevent potential problems in spacecraft docking, data transfer, communication, and navigation.

How Will a Lunar Time Standard Be Established?

• Like on Earth, atomic clocks can be deployed on the lunar surface to set a time standard.
• These clocks have to be placed on the Moon at different locations since the Moon’s rotation and even local lumps of mass, called mascons, beneath the crust of the Moon affect the flow of time ever so slightly.
  • Mascons or mass concentrations are so dense that they alter the Moon’s local gravity field.
• These effects are minor but the output from these clocks can be synthesized to give the Moon its own independent time, which can be tied back to UTC for seamless operations from Earth as well.

How Does Earth’s Time Standard Work?

• Most of the clocks and time zones of the world are based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), set by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France.
• UTC is essentially an internationally agreed-upon standard for world time.
• It is tracked by a weighted average of more than 400 atomic clocks placed in different parts of the globe.
• Atomic clocks measure time in terms of the resonant frequencies — the natural frequency of an object where it tends to vibrate at a higher amplitude — of atoms such as cesium-133.
• In atomic time, a second is defined as the period in which a cesium atom vibrates 9,192,631,770 times.
• As the vibration rates at which atoms absorb energy are highly stable and ultra-accurate, atomic clocks make for an excellent device for gauging the passage of time.
• To obtain their local time, countries must subtract or add a certain number of hours from UTC depending on how many time zones they are away from 0 degree longitude meridian, also known as the Greenwich meridian.
• If a country lies on the west of the Greenwich meridian, it has to subtract from the UTC, and if a country is located on the east of the meridian, it has to add.

Why is it in the News?

The Directorate General of Trade Remedies (DGTR) has now recommended the imposition of anti-dumping duty on sodium cyanide (NaCN) imported from China, the European Union, Japan, and Korea.

Key Facts About Sodium Cyanide:

• Sodium cyanide (NaCN) is a highly toxic, inorganic compound with a white, crystalline appearance.
• It is a solid at room temperature and has a high affinity for metals, making it useful in various industrial processes.
• Due to its toxic nature, proper handling and safety protocols must be followed when working with sodium cyanide.

Applications of Sodium Cyanide:

• Mining and Metallurgy: Sodium cyanide is widely used in the extraction of gold and silver from ores. It is employed in a technique called "cyanide heap leaching," where a dilute sodium cyanide solution is sprayed onto crushed ore.
  • The cyanide forms a water-soluble complex with the precious metals, enabling their recovery from the ore.
• Electroplating: NaCN is utilized as an electrolyte in electroplating processes, particularly for the deposition of silver, gold, and other metals on various surfaces to improve their appearance, durability, or conductivity.
• Synthetic Fiber Production: Sodium cyanide is used in the manufacturing of synthetic fibers such as acrylic and nylon.
  • It serves as a catalyst in the polymerization process, promoting the formation of long-chain polymers that make up the fibers.
• Pesticides: Due to its toxicity, sodium cyanide has been used as a fumigant to control pests and rodents.
  • However, its use in this field has been largely phased out in many countries due to safety concerns and the development of safer alternatives.
• Dye and Pigment Production: NaCN can be used in the production of certain dyes and pigments, particularly those containing nitrogen.
  • It acts as a precursor for the synthesis of these compounds.

What is Anti-Dumping Duty?

• An anti-dumping duty is a tariff imposed by a domestic government on foreign imports suspected of being sold at prices lower than those in the exporter's domestic market.
• This measure aims to prevent these products from undercutting local businesses and harming the local economy.
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) oversees a framework of international trade rules governing anti-dumping measures.
• Under this agreement, governments are permitted to address dumping practices if they pose a threat of significant harm to a domestic industry.

Calculation of Anti-Dumping Duty:

• The calculation of anti-dumping duty involves determining the difference between the normal value and the export value of the product.
• The normal value represents the market value of the product in the exporter's domestic market, while the export value denotes the price at which the product is sold when exported to India.
• The anti-dumping duty is levied to neutralize this price disparity and safeguard the domestic industry from the adverse effects of inexpensive imports.

Anti-Dumping Mechanism in India:

• India's anti-dumping mechanism is overseen by the Directorate General of Anti-Dumping and Allied Duties (DGAD) under the Ministry of Finance.
• The legal framework for anti-dumping in India is established by the Customs Tariff Act of 1975 and the Customs Tariff Rules of 1995.
• The DGAD conducts investigations to assess whether a surge in below-cost imports has negatively impacted the domestic industry.

Why is it in the News?

An international team of scientists, including from India, has discovered strong evidence indicating the presence of ozone on Jupiter’s moon Callisto, shedding light on the complex chemical processes taking place on icy celestial bodies in the Solar System.

Study on the Formation of Ozone in Callisto's Icy Environment:

• A recent study examined the chemical evolution of sulfur dioxide (SO2)-rich astrochemical ice found on Callisto's surface when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
• The investigation revealed a unique signature indicating the formation of ozone, which could have implications for the potential habitability of the Jovian moon.
• Callisto is Jupiter's second-largest moon and the third-largest moon in our solar system.
• It has a relatively stable surface, which could play a vital role in preserving subsurface oceans or potential habitats beneath its icy crust.
  • The study analyzed UV absorption spectra data from ice samples containing SO2, a primary component of Callisto's surface ice, and observed the generation of ozone under UV irradiation.
• Ozone formation on Callisto could have implications for the moon's astrobiological potential, as ozone can protect the surface from harmful radiation.
• Further research is needed to better understand the implications of this discovery on Callisto's habitability and the potential for future exploration missions.

Callisto's Distinctive Environment:

• Following Saturn, Jupiter boasts the second-highest number of moons in the Solar System, with Callisto ranking among its largest moons and holding the position of the third-largest moon overall, after Ganymede and Titan.
• Comprised predominantly of water ice, rocky elements, sulfur dioxide, and traces of organic compounds, Callisto presents a compelling potential for harboring life beyond Earth within the Solar System.
• The moon's extensively cratered surface bears witness to a lengthy history of impacts from asteroids and comets.

Importance of the Research:

• The identification of ozone on Callisto hints at the existence of oxygen, a crucial component essential for the development of intricate molecules vital for life, including amino acids, thus prompting inquiries into the moon's potential for sustaining life.
• This finding also has implications for other icy moons within our Solar System, offering insights that could broaden our comprehension of habitable environments beyond Earth.

Significance of Ozone:

• Consisting of three oxygen atoms bonded together, the ozone molecule plays a pivotal role in shielding life on Earth.
• Situated in the lower region of the Earth's stratosphere, approximately 15-35 kilometers above the surface, the ozone layer acts as a protective barrier.
• Without this layer, ultraviolet radiation would intensify, posing significant threats to various species and disrupting ecosystems.
• Ultraviolet-B and ultraviolet-C, with wavelengths ranging from 290 to 320 nanometers and 100 to 280 nanometers respectively, can cause DNA damage, and mutations, and elevate the risk of skin cancer and cataracts in humans.
• Furthermore, ultraviolet light can impede plant growth and adversely affect diverse organisms.

Why is it in the News?

Since ancient times, seafarers, mathematicians, astronomers, and physicists have all diligently studied and tracked the Sun and its phenomena, with the establishment of the Madras Observatory by the British East India Company in 1792 marking a pioneering effort in this region.

About Kodaikanal Solar Observatory:

• The Kodaikanal Solar Observatory is a solar observatory owned and operated by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), Bengaluru.
• It is on the southern tip of the Palani Hills 4 kilometers from Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu).
  • The Government of India separated Astrophysics from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) in April 1971.
• From solar data recorded on basic photographic plates or films, the 125-year-old KoSO boasts a mammoth digital repository containing 1.48 lakh digitized solar images of 10 terabytes.
  • These include 33,500 white-light images (showing sunspots) and thousands of other images of the Sun recorded every day since the start of the 20th century.
• KoSO is the only observatory offering high-resolution digitized images for such a long period (with coverage of more than 75 percent).
• Today, it houses a spectrum of advanced instruments like the H-alpha telescope to perform full disc imaging, a White light Active Region Monitor (WARM) with calcium and sodium filters to make full disc simultaneous observations of the photosphere and chromosphere layers of the Sun, a solar tunnel telescope and more.

Links to the Great Drought:

• Scanty rainfall over south India during the winter monsoon of 1875 triggered one of the worst droughts the country had experienced till then.
• Multiple failed crops over the famine-stricken peninsular India killed 12.2 to 29.3 million people across the Madras and Mysore Provinces during 1875-1877.
• India, along with China, Egypt, Morocco, Ethiopia, southern Africa, Brazil, Columbia, and Venezuela, suffered concurrent multi-year droughts during 1876-1878, later named the Great Drought, and an associated global famine that killed nearly 50 million.
• The drought was thought to be due to multiple reasons:
  • Solar activity
  • Cool Pacific Ocean conditions followed by a record-breaking El Nino (1877-1878)
  • Strong Indian Ocean Dipole and
  • Warm North Atlantic Ocean conditions.

Solar Physics Observatory in Palani Hills:

• Established in response to the British Raj's acknowledgment of solar activity's link to India's weather patterns, the Palani Hills Solar Physics Observatory, also known as the Indian Solar Observatory, was founded to conduct systematic studies on solar phenomena and their correlation with Indian meteorology.
• Located in Kodaikanal, selected for its favorable atmospheric conditions after careful consideration by Charles Michie Smith (a Professor of Physics at the Madras Christian College), the observatory was officially sanctioned by the Government of India in August 1893 and inaugurated by Lord Wenlock (the then Governor of Madras) in 1895.
• Commencing systematic observations in 1901, it merged with the Madras Observatory, enriching its instrumentation.
• Notable discoveries ensued, including the identification of the Evershed Effect.
• Over time, the observatory expanded its research domains to encompass cosmic rays, radio astronomy, and ionospheric physics, among others, solidifying its status as a pioneering institution in the field of astrophysics.
• Notably, it initiated solar radio observations in 1952, marking a significant milestone in Indian solar research.
• Despite the closure of contemporaneous observatories, the Palani Hills Solar Physics Observatory has endured, continuing to contribute to our understanding of the Sun and its effects on Earth's climate and space weather.

Why Study the Sun?

• Being the primary source of energy, life on Earth is supported by the Sun.
• Any change on the solar surface or its periphery could significantly affect the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Powerful solar storms and solar flares can be potentially harmful to Earth’s satellite-based operations, power grids, and navigational networks.
• The KoSO (Kodaikanal Solar Observatory), which has been imaging the Sun for over a century now, has a rich repository of data.
• This is extremely useful not only to reconstruct the Sun’s historic past but also to link its behavioral changes to better understand and predict its future and its impact on life on Earth and Space weather.

Why is it in the News?

Recently the Earth was hit by an X-class solar flare that was strong enough to ionize part of the planet's atmosphere.

What are Solar Flares?

• Solar flares are large explosions from the surface of the sun that emit intense bursts of electromagnetic radiation.
• The intensity of the explosion determines what classification the flare belongs to.
  • The most powerful are X-class flares, followed by M-, C-, and B-class; A-class flares are the smallest.
• These flares can be visible as bright flashes in a particular region of the sun and can last several minutes.
• Solar flares occur when magnetic energy builds up in the solar atmosphere and is released suddenly.
  • These outbursts are intrinsically linked to the solar cycle — an approximately 11-year cycle of solar activity driven by the sun's magnetic field.

What Causes Solar Flares?

• The sun's surface is a magnetically mixed-up place.
• Magnetic fields are created from electrically charged gases generating electrical currents that act as a magnetic dynamo inside the sun.
• These magnetic fields twist, tangle, and reorganize themselves due to the turbulent nature of the gases that create them.
• This unsettled magnetic field behavior — also known as solar activity — can trigger solar flare eruptions from the surface that release vast amounts of electromagnetic radiation — a form of energy that includes radio waves, microwaves, X-rays, gamma rays, and visible light.
• Solar flares tend to originate from regions of the solar surface that contain sunspots — darker, cooler portions of the solar surface where magnetic fields are particularly strong.
  • As such, the number of sunspots can indicate the likelihood of a solar flare eruption.
• Solar activity follows an approximately 11-year cycle with the peak of sunspot activity coinciding with the solar maximum and a sunspot hiatus coinciding with the solar minimum.
• During periods of low solar activity when no sunspots are present, it is unlikely that a solar flare will occur. 

What are X-Class Solar Flares?

• Solar flares are categorized into five classes based on the intensity of emitted X-rays, with each class letter denoting a 10-fold increase in energy output, akin to the Richter scale for earthquake strength assessment.
• X-class flares are the most powerful solar flares.
  • Then there are M-class flares that are 10 times smaller than X-class flares, then C-class, B-class, and finally A-class flares which are too weak to significantly affect Earth.
• Within each letter class, a finer scale from 1 to 9 gives the flare assessment greater precision with larger numbers representing more powerful flares within the class.
• However, X-class flares can break this nine-point rating mold with higher ratings, since there is no class more powerful than X-class.
• Fortunately, X-class flares occur on average about 10 times per year.

How do Solar Flares Affect the Earth?

• Disruption of Satellite Communications: Solar flares can interfere with satellite communications, GPS signals, and radio transmissions, causing disruptions or blackouts in telecommunications and navigation systems.
• Auroral Displays: Intense solar flares can trigger colorful auroras, or Northern and Southern Lights, as charged particles interact with Earth's magnetic field, creating stunning light displays in the polar regions.
• Power Grid Disturbances: Severe solar flares have the potential to induce geomagnetic storms that can overload power grids, leading to widespread power outages and damage to electrical infrastructure.
• Radiation Hazards: Solar flares emit harmful radiation, particularly in the form of ultraviolet and X-rays, which can pose risks to astronauts in space and airline passengers at high altitudes.
• Impact on Electronics: The influx of charged particles during solar flares can induce currents in electrical circuits, potentially damaging or disrupting sensitive electronic devices, such as computers, satellites, and spacecraft.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, NASA's Soho mission, which is tasked with observing the Sun, has captured its 5000th comet as it dives around the star in our Solar System.

About Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO):

• SOHO was built as a general solar observatory, with twelve suites of scientific instruments to track all of these properties of the Sun.
• During its operations, it has provided important insights, including:
  • Details about the interior of the Sun,
  • What sunspots look like beneath the surface,
  • Measurements of the speed of the solar wind,
  • The charged particles that escape from the corona,
  • Mapping the magnetic field behavior over the Sun’s surface; and
  • Revealing new phenomena such as “solar tornadoes”.
• Built in Europe, SOHO is operated jointly by ESA and NASA, with contributions from a large number of scientists, engineers, and other staff around the world.
• The spacecraft was launched in 1995 with a planned two-year mission.
• Its work was successful enough to justify keeping the observatory going, and it’s still operating more than 20 years later.
• The probe orbits the Sun at a place where the gravity of the Sun and Earth balance each other out, known as the first Lagrange point (L1).
• Center for Astrophysics (CfA) scientists and engineers provided SOHO’s Ultraviolet Coronagraph Spectrometer (UVCS), which operated until 2013 and measured the ultraviolet spectrum of the hot solar atmosphere.
  • UVCS provided the insight that the corona is too hot to be produced by ordinary thermal transfer, where particles collide and pass energy to each other.
  • Instead, the corona and solar wind must be accelerated by the magnetic field interactions in some way.
• Other SOHO instruments measure the speed and composition of the solar wind; the seismic waves that travel across the Sun’s surface; the fluctuations in the temperature, composition, and density of different parts of the corona; and the motion of matter upward from the Sun’s interior to its surface.

Why is it in the News?

Kerala's shift towards an alternative approach for the implementation of smart electricity meters, sidelining the Central government's Rs 3 lakh crore project, poses a challenge to the Union Government's initiative of replacing 250 million traditional meters with smart meters in all households by March 2025.

About the Smart Meter National Programme (SMNP):

• The Indian government has initiated the Smart Meter National Programme (SMNP) to revolutionize the country's energy sector through the implementation of smart meters.
• By replacing 25 crore conventional meters, the SMNP aims to enhance the operational efficiency and revenue management of distribution companies (DISCOMs).
• Under the leadership of Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL), a joint venture of four National Public Sector Enterprises, the scheme is set to make waves in the energy sector.
• EESL, comprised of NTPC Limited, PFC, REC, and POWERGRID, operates under the Ministry of Power and is committed to undertaking the necessary capital and operational expenditures with zero upfront investment from states and utilities.
• The Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT) model facilitates the recovery of smart meter costs via the monetization of energy savings resulting from improved billing accuracy, reduced meter reading costs, and increased efficiency.
• In accordance with guidelines set forth by the Central Electricity Authority (CEA), the strategic deployment of these smart meters adheres to industry standards.

Smart meters offer a multitude of advantages:

• • Consumers can monitor their electricity usage and make informed decisions to reduce their bills.
  • Utilities benefit from enhanced operational efficiency, enabling better power demand management.
• Web-based Monitoring: The interconnected smart meter network can mitigate utilities' commercial losses, enhance revenue generation, and propel power sector reforms.
• The Smart Meter National Programme (SMNP) paves the way for a more efficient and sustainable energy landscape in India, revolutionizing the way utilities operate and consumers engage with their electricity usage.

What are Smart Meters?

• A smart meter serves as an advanced tool for recording electricity consumption and voltage levels, offering a significant upgrade over traditional metering systems.
  • While conventional meters simply measure power usage, smart meters take it a step further by transmitting real-time data to utility providers at intervals of 15 minutes or hourly.
• Smart meters truly live up to their name by utilizing internet connectivity to facilitate two-way communication.
  • On one hand, they empower consumers with up-to-date information on energy usage patterns, enabling them to make informed decisions and manage consumption more efficiently.
  • On the other hand, utility providers gain valuable insights for monitoring purposes and ensuring accurate billing.
• In essence, smart meters pave the way for improved energy management, increased transparency, and enhanced efficiency, catering to the evolving needs of both consumers and utility providers in today's digital era.

Why is it in the News?

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully conducted the Pushpak Reusable Landing Vehicle (RLV) LEX 02 landing experiment at the Aeronautical Test Range in Chitradurga recently.

What is a Reusable Landing Vehicle (RLV) LEX 02?

• Continuing our exploration into reusable landing vehicles, RLV-LEX-02 marks the second mission in our series conducted at the Aeronautical Test Range.
• Following the success of RLV-LEX-01 last year, this latest endeavor showcases the remarkable autonomous landing capability of our reusable launch vehicle (RLV).
• Notably, RLV-LEX-02 demonstrates the vehicle's ability to navigate and safely land from off-nominal initial conditions immediately upon release from a helicopter.

Methodology of the Experiment:

• The RLV LEX-02 mission showcased the autonomous landing prowess of our reusable launch vehicle under demanding circumstances following its release from a helicopter.
• Dubbed 'Pushpak', this winged vehicle was airlifted by an Indian Air Force Chinook helicopter and released from a height of 4.5 km.
• Navigating autonomously, it adeptly approached the runway, making precise cross-range corrections before executing a flawless landing.
• Utilizing a combination of its brake parachute, landing gear brakes, and nose wheel steering system, it safely came to a stop.
• Notably, the winged body and all flight systems previously employed in RLV-LEX-01 were repurposed for RLV-LEX-02 after undergoing necessary certification and clearances.
• This remarkable mission was executed collaboratively by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), the Liquid Propulsion System Centre (LPSC), and the ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU).

What is the Reusable Launch Vehicle?

• The reusable launch vehicle represents a pioneering space plane design characterized by a low lift-to-drag ratio, which mandates high glide angles during approach and consequently requires landing at velocities reaching 350 kmph.
• Integral to its innovation are a multitude of indigenous systems developed meticulously. These encompass sophisticated navigation systems, leveraging pseudolite technology for precise localization, as well as instrumentation and sensor arrays, among other advancements, all spearheaded by ISRO.

Why is it in the News?

Public knowledge and awareness about Hepatitis B, a deadly disease that can cause end-stage liver cirrhosis and liver cancer, is dismal in India, according to a new study conducted by Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi.

What is Hepatitis B?

• It is a severe liver infection that can lead to liver damage, cancer, and death.
• The virus spreads through contact with an infected person's blood or bodily fluids.
• One can get hepatitis B through sexual contact, sharing needles or other drug-injection equipment, or from mother to child during childbirth.

Symptoms of Hepatitis B:

• Hepatitis B is a severe viral infection of the liver that can cause inflammation and scarring.
• Symptoms include fatigue, fever, abdominal pain, dark urine, joint pain, and jaundice.

Causes of Hepatitis B:

• Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV).
• HBV is found in the blood and body fluids of an infected person. It can spread through contact with fluids, such as:
  • Blood, through needle sharing or accidental needle sticks
  • Contact with body fluids, such as saliva, etc.
  • Sexual contact with someone who has HBV
  • From a mother to a child through childbirth
• Hepatitis B can also spread through contact with contaminated surfaces, such as:
  • Sharing personal items like toothbrushes or razors with someone who has HBV
  • Getting a tattoo or body piercing with contaminated equipment

Types of Hepatitis B:

• There are three main types of hepatitis B: acute, chronic, and carriers.
  • Acute hepatitis B is a short-term illness that occurs within the first six months after exposure to the virus. It is the most common type of hepatitis B in children.
  • Chronic hepatitis B is a long-term illness that can lead to serious health problems, including liver failure and liver cancer.
  • Carriers of hepatitis B have the virus in their blood but do not show any symptoms.

Treatment for Hepatitis B

• Several medications can help treat hepatitis B.
• These include antiviral drugs, which can help reduce the amount of virus in the body, and immunomodulators, which can help boost the immune system to better fight the virus.
• If the liver is damaged, one may also need medication to help protect it from further damage.
• HBIG (Hepatitis B Immuno Globulin) is one of the best ways to treat hepatitis B.
  • Adults who have been exposed to hepatitis should get HBIG and vaccination as soon as possible, preferably within 24 hours but not later than 14 days after the exposure.

Prevention of Hepatitis B:

• The best way to prevent hepatitis B is to get vaccinated.
• The vaccine is given as a series of shots.
• The first shot is usually given at birth; the rest at 1–2 months old, 6–18 months old, and 4–6 years old.
• If one was not vaccinated as a child, they can receive the vaccines as an adult.