Why is it in the News?

The Union and Manipur governments have signed a peace agreement with the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), a banned Meitei extremist organisation which is also the oldest armed group based in the Manipur valley, Union Home Minister Amit Shah said on Wednesday.

News Summary:

• Manipur's oldest valley-based armed group UNLF that has been fighting for a sovereign land following the post-independence merger of the erstwhile kingdom with India has now signed a tripartite peace deal with Centre and the Manipur Govt.
• It is a significant step towards lasting peace in Manipur, which shares a long border with junta-ruled Myanmar and serves as India's main surface transport gateway to Southeast Asia, thus playing a key role in national security.
• The Centre in the announcement of the peace agreement described the UNLF as a "valley-based" armed group to indicate its origins in the state capital Imphal Valley and other districts not classified as hill areas.
• Similarly, at least 25 hill-based insurgent groups are already under a tripartite peace deal called the suspension of operations (SoO) agreement.

Key Highlights of the Peace Deal:

• While the details of the deal haven't been disclosed publicly, experts indicate that the current agreement predominantly revolves around the suspension of operations (SoO).
• This means that both the UNLF and security forces will refrain from engaging in operations against each other.
• In the upcoming stages, specific areas will be designated to establish camps for UNLF within the valley.
• In these camps, UNLF members will reside alongside their arms and ammunition, all supervised by the Manipur government and armed forces.
• The discussions for a comprehensive peace accord between the government and UNLF will persist, with the focus on advancing after the successful implementation of the SoO arrangements.

What is the United National Liberation Front (UNLF)?

• Formation: The UNLF was formed in November 1964 by Khalanlang Kamei as president, Thangkhopao Singsit as vice president, and A Somarendro Singh as general secretary.
• It set up its armed wing the Manipur Peoples' Army (MPA) in February 1990.
• Objectives: The UNLF favoured a long-term program to secede from India under the leadership of Arembam Samarendra Singh, form an alliance mainly with China and gradually capture political power with the help of an indoctrinated young population and the intelligentsia.
• It aimed at reclaiming the Kabow Valley in Myanmar.
• Personnel And Weapons: The UNLF split into two factions due to internal differences.
• Jointly, the two factions are estimated to have 400-500 personnel with over 500 weapons of mixed types.
• Links With Other Valley-Based Armed Groups: The UNLF was a constituent of the Coordination Committee, known as CorCom, which is an umbrella body of earlier six and currently four groups - RPF/PLA, PREPAK, and PREPAK/PRO.
• The UNLF is an "unlawful association" under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act.
• The UNLF had been carrying out its activities, including violence and propaganda jointly in consultation with the other constituents of CorCom.
• The close association of these constituents was one of the reasons for valley-based armed groups not responding to offers of coming overground and joining the mainstream.
• Areas Of Operation: All valley districts of Manipur - Imphal East, Imphal West, Thoubal, Bishnupur, Jiribam, and Kakching, and some Kuki and Vapiphei-dominated villages in the hill districts of Manipur.
• The UNLF's camps, training centers, hideouts, and safehouses are in the Sagaing region of Chin State and Rakhine State in Myanmar.
• The UNLF had been able to operate freely within Myanmar allegedly due to its close links with officials of the Myanmar military.
• Linkages and Front Organisations: The UNLF, being the oldest valley-based armed group, had wielded a significant influence on public issues.
• Most of the impact was through the front organisations that it used to mobilise public protests on key matters.
• Return To Mainstream: The senior leaders of the UNLF responded favourably to the Centre's offer to join the mainstream for the first time in 2020.
• More than 400 personnel with an equal number of weapons joined the peace process, which will have a significant impact on the security scenario of Manipur and the northeast region.

Insurgency in Manipur:

• Manipur is currently experiencing an armed conflict between India and various separatist rebel groups.
• This insurgency is a part of the broader Insurgency in Northeast India, encompassing aspects of both a national liberation war and an ethnic conflict.
• Historical Background of Manipur: Post the brief Anglo-Manipur War of 1891, the Kingdom of Manipur came under British rule and became a British protectorate.
• In October 1949, Manipur joined India and achieved separate statehood in 1972.
• Rise of Insurgency: Manipur's integration into India led to the emergence of several insurgent organizations advocating for an independent state within Manipur's borders, rejecting the merger with India as involuntary.
• The insurgency issue arose in the late 1960s and 1970s, contrasting with the peaceful merger period.
• The United National Liberation Front (UNLF), the first separatist faction, was established in November 1964.
• Currently, the region faces challenges from multiple insurgent groups.

What are the Factors Behind the Rise of Insurgency in Manipur?

• Forced Merger with India: The roots of separatist insurgency in Manipur can be traced to perceived discontent arising from the alleged "forced" merger of Manipur with the Union of India.
• The delay in granting full-fledged statehood further fueled dissatisfaction.
• Despite merging in 1949, Manipur attained statehood only in 1972.
• Rise of Militancy: Subsequent years witnessed the formation of various militant groups, including the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), and Kanglei Yawol Kanna Lup (KYKL). These valley-based outfits advocate for an independent Manipur.
• Ethnic Conflict: Despite the hills comprising nine-tenths of Manipur's geographical area, they are sparsely populated.
• The majority of the state's population resides in the valley, with the Meitei community dominating.
• While the surrounding hill districts are inhabited by Nagas and Kukis.
• Ethnic clashes between Nagas and Kukis in the early 1990s led to the formation of several Kuki insurgent groups.
• Over time, their demand shifted from a separate Kuki state to a Territorial Council.
• This conflict's continuation gave rise to smaller outfits like the Zeliangrong United Front (ZUF), People’s United Liberation Front (PULF), and other splinter groups.
• Greater Nagalim Demand: The Nagalim or Greater Nagaland demand encompasses Naga-inhabited areas of Manipur, while the Meitis strive to preserve the historical integrity of a single geographic entity that has endured for centuries.
• Insufficient Socio-Economic Progress: Due to its challenging topography, the state has faced persistent challenges in achieving economic development and socio-economic transformation.
• Throughout the years, persistent corruption, fund mismanagement, and the neglect to empower the general populace have contributed to a growing sense of discontent.

What are the Steps Taken by the Government?

Military Measures:

• AFSPA Implementation: In 1980, the entire Manipur was declared a "disturbed area," prompting the imposition of the contentious Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA).
• This act, aimed at suppressing insurgency, remains in effect to date.
• Operation All Clear: The Assam Rifles and the army executed "Operation All Clear" in the hill areas, neutralizing many militant hideouts.
• However, some relocated to the valley.

Ceasefire Arrangements:

• In 1997, the National Socialist Council of Nagaland-IM (Isak-Muivah) initiated a ceasefire agreement with the Government of India, and ongoing peace talks persisted.
• Kuki Outfits: Under the Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and United People’s Front (UPF), Kuki outfits signed tripartite Suspension of Operation (SoO) pacts with the Governments of India and Manipur on August 22, 2008.
• Some smaller outfits have entered SoO agreements with the state government, leading to rehabilitation programs.
• Valley-Based Militant Outfits: Significant valley-based militant groups like UNLF, PLA, and KYKL, among others, have not yet participated in negotiations with the government.

What is the Current Situation?

• One faction of the UNLF, led by Koireng, remains resistant to engaging in talks.
• Withdrawal from Suspension of Operations (SoO): In 2008, a tripartite Suspension of Operations (SoO) agreement involving the Centre, Manipur state, and Kuki-Zomi insurgent groups was established.
• The primary goal was to facilitate political dialogue. However, in March 2023, the Manipur government withdrew from the agreement with the Zomi Revolutionary Army and the Kuki National Army.
• The decision was attributed to their alleged influence in fostering agitation among forest encroachers.

Way Forward

• Effective Border Management: Prior to implementing any counter-insurgency policies or operations, proper management of the Indo-Myanmar international border is imperative.
• Promoting Economic Development: Following good governance, economic development should be pursued through participation from government, semi-government, and private entrepreneurship.
• Establishing Good Governance: Instituting good governance in the state necessitates a transparent government, a fair judiciary system, adherence to the rule of law, and ensuring basic amenities like hospitals, schools, and police stations.
• Political sincerity and equitable fund distribution for both valley and hill development are crucial.
• Community Engagement: Enhancing connectivity and interaction among Manipur's diverse communities and mainland India is vital for fostering national integration.
• Utilizing Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), women's associations and cultural programs can play a significant role in rebuilding confidence among the valley and hill populations.

Why is it in the News?

Context:

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) recently issued regulatory measures to banks and NBFCs to increase risk weights associated with consumer credit and bank credit by an additional 25 percentage points.
• Currently, at 100% risk weight, loans to consumers will see an increase to 125%, excluding loans for housing, education, vehicles, and against gold.
• This would be applicable to unsecured personal loans, credit cards, and lending to NBFCs.
• The directions are expected to result in higher capital requirements for lenders and thereby, an increase in lending rates for consumers.

What is ‘Risk Weights'?

• Risk weight is capital required to be set aside, stipulated by the Reserve Bank of India for Banks, or National Housing Bank for housing finance companies, that has to be made by banks for giving the loan.
• In other words, it is the amount (depicted as a percentage of loan disbursed) that institutions need to set aside for assets.
• The risk weight is a function of the risk perception the apex bank has on loans for different sectors.
• It is applicable to all categories of retail (personal, home, car, and education loans) as well as corporate lending.
• The one that often impacts borrowers directly, and the most, is the risk weight on home loans.
• It is an essential tool for banks to manage this risk.

Why do risk weights matter?

• Risk weights are pivotal in banking regulation, as they dictate the capital set aside for different loan types, reflecting their risk profiles.
• Unsecured loans, perceived as riskier, have higher weights, thus requiring more capital.
• Home loans, for instance, attract a risk weight of 35-50%, depending on the size of the loan.
• In comparison, personal loans will now have a risk weight of 125%.

Why were the Changes by RBI Deemed Necessary?

• Governor Shaktikanta Das had flagged concerns about the “high growth” in “certain components of consumer credit.” while presenting the monetary policy statement in October this year.
• He advised banks and NBFCs to “strengthen their internal surveillance mechanisms, address the build-up of risks, if any, and institute suitable safeguards, in their own interest.”
• The governor said these were being closely monitored by the apex banking regulator for “any signs of incipient stress.”
• Rating agency Moody’s also put forth that higher risk weights are intended to “dampen lenders’ consumer loan growth appetite.”
• The unsecured segment, it adds, has grown rapidly in the past few years, exposing financial institutions to a potential spike in credit costs in the event of a sudden economic or interest rate shock.
• RBI’s latest figures stipulate that unsecured personal loans have increased approximately 23% on a year-over-year basis, as of September 22 this year.
• Outstanding loans from credit cards increased by about 30% during the same period.
• Major concerns emerge for loans below Rs 50,000 – these carry the utmost default risk.
• Delinquencies in this segment stood at 5.4% as of June this year.
• Ratings agency S&P in their assessment held that borrowers in this segment are often highly leveraged and may have other lending products.
• According to Moody’s, several NBFCs that until now focused on secured lending categories (such as infrastructure, real estate, and vehicle loans) have pivoted to riskier segments.

What are the main concerns?

• The primary concerns are about how these changes might affect the amount of money banks have and how well they can make a profit.
• Having enough money, called capital adequacy, is crucial for banks.
• It helps them handle unexpected problems or risks in their business without losing too much money.
• A recent report from S&P, which is a group that studies these things, says that if banks are more careful and focus on managing risks, it could make their loans safer.
• However, it predicts that a measure called Tier-1 capital adequacy, which is like the best kind of money banks have, might go down a bit—about 60 basis points.
• This is important because Tier-1 capital helps banks deal with losses right away.
• S&P thinks that this might make banks that don't have a lot of this kind of money think about getting more.
• Also, it noticed that government-owned banks generally have less of this important money than big private banks.
• But, the report says that finance companies might face the biggest impact because they could end up borrowing more from banks, and it might affect how much good money they have.

How It will affect Consumers?

• As the risk weightage goes up, banks may become more careful about giving loans to consumers, especially those seen as having a higher risk.
• This could make it harder for some people to get credit cards or personal loans.
• Even those who still qualify for credit might face stricter terms and conditions.
• Experts suggest that by increasing the risk weightage, the RBI is trying to handle the increasing number of people not repaying their loans and the risks connected to unsecured loans.
• Lenders will now have to consider the higher credit risk in this type of loan, which could make lending more expensive.
• As a result, borrowers taking out these loans may face higher costs.

Way Forward

Banks and NBFCs may need to review their approaches to risk and lending specifically for unsecured loans. This could involve placing greater emphasis on evaluating creditworthiness and exploring alternative strategies to effectively handle risk while still providing loans. Financial institutions might also consider diversifying their loan portfolios by placing more emphasis on secured lending or exploring other creditworthy segments. This approach aims to balance the effects of the heightened risk-weighting associated with unsecured loans.

What is the Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR)?

• The Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) is a financial metric used to evaluate a bank's stability and risk management.
• Calculated as a percentage, it compares a bank's capital—comprising Tier-1 and Tier-2 capital—to its risk-weighted assets.
• Tier-1 capital includes core elements like common equity
• Tier-2 capital consists of supplementary items.
• Regulatory authorities, such as the RBI, establish minimum CAR requirements to ensure banks can absorb potential losses.
• A higher CAR reflects greater financial resilience, emphasizing a bank's ability to navigate economic challenges and adhere to regulatory standards.

Why is it in the News?

Experts in Uttarakhand have resorted to ‘rat-hole’ mining to help rescue 41 workers trapped inside the collapsed Silkyara tunnel.

Context:

• Rat hole mining, a controversial and outlaw mining practice is back in the spotlight nearly 9 years after it was banned by the National Green Tribunal (NGT) over severe environmental impacts and unsafe labour conditions.
• The rat hole mining technique is being used to extract the 41 construction workers trapped inside a collapsed Uttarakhand tunnel after modern machinery failed to execute the rescue operation.
• The attempt to free 41 trapped workers in the collapsed Silkyara-Barkot tunnel encountered a significant setback as the auger joint of the debris-drilling machine broke.

What is Rat-hole Mining?

• Rat hole mining is a method of extracting coal from narrow, horizontal seams, prevalent in Meghalaya.
• The term “rat hole” refers to the narrow pits dug into the ground, typically just large enough for one person to descend and extract coal.
• Once the pits are dug, miners descend using ropes or bamboo ladders to reach the coal seams.
• The coal is then manually extracted using primitive tools such as pickaxes, shovels, and baskets.
• The rat-hole mining is broadly of two types.
• The first type is a side-cutting procedure, in the side-cutting procedure, narrow tunnels are dug on the hill slopes and workers go inside until they find the coal seam.
• The coal seam in the hills of Meghalaya is very thin, less than 2 m in most cases.
• In the other type of rat-hole mining, called box-cutting, a rectangular opening is made, varying from 10 to 100 sqm, and through that a vertical pit is dug, 100 to 400 feet deep.
• Once the coal seam is found, rat-hole-sized tunnels are dug horizontally through which workers can extract the coal.

Environmental and Safety Concerns Associated with Rat-hole mining:

• Rat hole mining poses significant safety and environmental hazards.
• The mines are typically unregulated, lacking safety measures such as proper ventilation, structural support, or safety gear for the workers.
• Additionally, the mining process can cause land degradation, deforestation, and water pollution.
• This method of mining has faced severe criticism due to its hazardous working conditions, environmental damage, and numerous accidents leading to injuries and fatalities.
• Despite attempts by authorities to regulate or ban such practices, they often persist due to economic factors and the absence of viable alternative livelihoods for the local population.

When and Why was Rat-hole Mining Banned?

• This rat-mining method has faced severe criticism due to its hazardous working conditions, environmental damage, and numerous accidents leading to injuries and fatalities.
• Experts have opined that the mines are typically unregulated, lacking safety measures such as proper ventilation, structural support, or safety gear for the workers, thereby creating a rather harmful environment for the rat-miners.
• The National Green Tribunal (NGT) banned the practice in 2014 and retained the ban in 2015.
• The NGT observed, “It is also informed that there is umpteen number of cases where by virtue of rat-hole mining, during the rainy season, water flooded into the mining areas resulting in the death of many individuals including employees/workers."

How Rat-hole Mining has Helped in Uttarakhand Tunnel Rescue Operation?

• The state-of-the-art American auger machine drilled roughly 47-48 meters of a horizontal tunnel.
• After that, it’s driller tool broke inside the drilled passage and authorities said that the damage was beyond repair.
• The rescue teams then resorted to manual drilling – a safer but time-consuming option. However, they brought in a team of rat hole mining experts who completed the remaining task in less than two days.
• The rat hole miners went inside the steel pipe being pushed inside the rubble through which trapped workers were pulled out and drilled a horizontal passage.
• The process was somewhat similar to the digging of a narrow tunnel for coal mining.

What are the Other Methods Used to Rescue the Trapped Workers in the Silkyara Tunnel?

• Vertical drilling: Vertical drilling is done through a boring machine, digging straight down from the ground using electrical tools and equipment.
• In the case of the Uttarakhand tunnel collapse, a vertical drill had been boring into the ground and an 800-mm pipe had been inserted to bring out the trapped workers.
• Auger mining (horizontal drilling): A horizontal auger machine or a directional drill is a specialised tool designed to drill horizontal bores or create underground tunnels without disturbing the ground.
• These machines are used to lay down water and gas pipes and to dig a tunnel.
• However, the auger machine in the case of the Uttarakhand tunnel collapse failed to free the trapped workers as it hit metal obstructions and eventually broke down, beyond repair.

What is a Horizontal Auger Machine?

• A horizontal auger machine, also known as a horizontal boring machine or directional drill, is a specialized tool designed for creating horizontal bores or underground tunnels without causing surface disruption.
• It typically features a rotating helical screw blade, referred to as an auger, attached to a central shaft or drill, facilitating penetration through rotation.
• Applications: Widely utilized in construction, utility installations (such as laying pipes or cables), and various infrastructure projects.
• Working Mechanism: Positioned at the starting point of the bore, often on the surface, the machine comprises a drill head with an auger or a drill string.
• The rotating auger at the front of the machine cuts through soil, rock, or other underground materials.
• The rotation is powered by hydraulic or mechanical systems.
• As the auger progresses, it removes the material from the tunnel.
• The removal process is usually facilitated by a drilling fluid or mud pumped through the drill string.
• The drilling fluid serves multiple purposes, including lubricating the drilling process, cooling the cutting head, and transporting excavated material back to the surface.

Why is it in the News?

President Draupadi Murmu on Sunday called for the creation of an all-India judicial service to recruit judges, saying this will help make the judiciary diverse by increasing representation from marginalised social groups.

News Summary:

• President Draupadi Murmu in her inaugural address, advocates for the establishment of an all-India judicial service during the Supreme Court’s Constitution Day celebrations on 26th Nov.
• November 26th is observed as Constitution Day to commemorate the adoption of the Constitution of India by the Constituent Assembly in 1949.
• The creation of an all-India judicial service is proposed to diversify the judiciary, increasing representation from marginalized social groups.
• She also discusses gender and caste representation, emphasizing the need for accessible justice and suggested a merit-based, competitive, and transparent process for recruiting judges from varied backgrounds.
• The President envisions an all-India judicial service selecting talented individuals from across the country, providing opportunities to less-represented social groups.
• She calls for removing colonial remnants from all domains as part of India's continued democratization.
• She highlights India's democratic strides post-independence, celebrating diverse leadership across genders and socially disadvantaged groups.

About All-India Judicial Service:

• The concept of the All-India Judicial Service was initially introduced in the 14th Report of the Law Commission of India in 1958.
• This service envisions the central recruitment of district judges through an all-India examination, with subsequent allocation to each state, mirroring the organizational structure of other All-India Services such as IAS and IPS.
• The primary objective is to establish a transparent and efficient recruitment method, aiming to attract the finest legal talent in India.
• The idea was again proposed in the Law Commission Report of 1978, which discussed delays and arrears of cases in the lower courts.
• In 2006, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law and Justice in its 15th Report backed the idea of a pan-Indian judicial service and also prepared a draft Bill.
• Currently, the appointment of district judges is carried out by the state governor based on the recommendations of the chief justice of the respective state's high court.

What is the procedure to set up an All-India Service?

• The 42nd Constitutional Amendment (1976) brought about modifications to Article 312(1), granting the Parliament the authority to legislate for the establishment of one or more All-India Services.
• Following this, as per Article 312(1) of the Constitution, the Rajya Sabha must pass a resolution with the support of at least two-thirds of its members present and voting.
• Subsequently, Parliament can amend Article 233 and Article 234 by a simple majority to institute an All-India Judicial Service (AIJS).
• The recruitment procedures and terms for individuals appointed to All India services are subject to regulation by Parliament through the enactment of the All India Service Act, 1951.
• Importantly, this process does not necessitate a constitutional amendment under Article 368.

Arguments Setting of the All-India Judicial Service (AIJS):

• Enhanced Judicial Efficiency: Implementation of the All-India Judicial Service (AIJS) ensures an efficient subordinate judiciary by addressing issues such as different pay scales, faster vacancy fulfillment, and standardized training across states.
• Vacancies and Pendency of Cases: As of July 2023, the subordinate judiciary's working strength was 19,858, with 5,000 posts remaining vacant against the sanctioned strength of 25,246.
• Over 85% of the 5 crore pending cases, especially in district courts, contribute to a significant backlog, with more than one lakh cases pending for over 30 years.
• Balancing Judges To Population Ratio: The AIJS aligns with a Law Commission report (1987) suggesting a judge-to-population ratio of 50 judges per million people, a considerable increase from the then-existing 10.50 judges.
• Despite progress, the current figure of 20 judges in terms of sanctioned strength remains comparatively lower than the U.S. (107) and the U.K. (51) ratios.
• Enhanced Representation for Marginalized Sections: The AIJS is advocated by the government as an optimal solution for achieving equitable representation of marginalized and deprived sections of society within the judiciary.
• Addressing Corruption and Nepotism: A bottoms-up approach to recruitment through the AIJS is seen as a strategy to tackle issues like corruption and nepotism prevalent in the lower judiciary.
• Absence of career growth: Currently, less than 25% of judicial officers have the chance to ascend to High Court judgeship, primarily reaching the rank of district judges towards the end of their careers.
• The remaining 75% quota is allocated for High Court judge recruitment from the Bar Association of India.
• The establishment of an All-India Judicial Service (AIJS) would ensure a richer talent pool with a younger age profile for selection by High Courts and the Supreme Court, offering a remedy to the issue of limited career growth.

Criticism Against Setting up an All-India Judicial Service:

• Centralization and State Power Concerns: The adoption of a centralized recruitment process is criticized as infringing on federalism, and encroaching on the constitutional powers granted to states.
• Language Barrier Challenge: An argument against AIJS is that judges recruited through this process may lack proficiency in the local languages of the States where they are posted.
• Given that civil and criminal court proceedings are conducted in languages prescribed by respective State governments, this language barrier is a significant concern.
• Impact on Local Reservations: Centralized testing may potentially dilute reservations based on caste, rural backgrounds, or linguistic minorities, undermining localized efforts to ensure representation.
• Conflict with Separation of Powers: Opposition stems from constitutional principles of the separation of powers.
• Centralized testing raises concerns about the executive gaining influence in the appointment of district judges, potentially diminishing the role of High Courts.
• Limited Impact on Structural Issues: Critics argue that the creation of the All-India Judicial Service (AIJS) fails to address inherent structural challenges in the lower judiciary.
• Uniformity in pay scales, as addressed by the Supreme Court in the 1993 All India Judges Association case, is seen as a more effective approach.
• Alternative Solutions Over Central Exam: Experts contend that addressing structural issues involves increasing pay universally and ensuring that a portion of High Court judges are selected from the lower judiciary.
• This approach is seen as more effective than relying solely on a central exam to attract quality talent.

Supreme Court’s Stand:

• In 1992, the Supreme Court (SC) issued a directive in the case of All India Judges’ Association v. The Union of India, instructing the Centre to establish an All India Judicial Service (AIJS).
• However, during a review of this judgment in 1993, the court granted the Centre the freedom to take the lead on the AIJS matter.
• In 2017, the SC independently addressed concerns about the appointment of district judges, suggesting the exploration of a Central Selection Mechanism.
• Senior advocate Arvind Datar, acting as amicus curiae (friend of the court), circulated a concept note to all states proposing a common examination instead of separate state exams.
• The merit list from this common examination would guide High Courts in conducting interviews and appointing judges.
• Datar emphasized that this approach would not alter the constitutional framework or diminish the authority of states or High Courts.

Way Forward

Despite the prolonged debate spanning decades, numerous States and High Courts have expressed reservations regarding the creation of an All-India Judicial Service (AIJS). Therefore, it is imperative to foster a comprehensive consensus among the Centre, States, and the Judiciary before the Parliament proceeds with establishing the AIJS. In the meantime, efforts should be concentrated on implementing more targeted and immediate solutions to effectively address the challenges faced by the Indian judiciary.

Why is it in the News?

• The International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women is observed worldwide on November 25 each year, as designated by the United Nations General Assembly.
• 2023 theme of Elimination of Violence against Women: This year’s theme, "UNITE! Invest to prevent violence against women and girls", emphasises the need to fund prevention strategies proactively to stop gender-based violence.

Violence Against Women:

• According to United Nations (UN) data, one in three women worldwide experience physical or sexual violence, mostly by an intimate partner, affecting approximately 736 million women globally.
• This alarming trend extends beyond traditional settings, seeping into workplaces and online spaces, further exacerbated by post-pandemic repercussions, conflicts, and climate change.
• Violence against women and girls is a human rights violation, and the immediate and long-term physical, sexual, and mental consequences for women and girls can be devastating, including death.
• Violence negatively affects women’s general well-being and prevents women from fully participating in society.
• It impacts their families, their community, and the country at large.
• It has tremendous costs, from greater strains on health care to legal expenses and losses in productivity.

Statistics on Violence against Women in India:

• Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is recognised as a pervasive social issue and a significant public health challenge.
• Recent global estimates indicate that over 25% of women of reproductive age, who have ever been in a relationship, have faced physical, sexual, or both forms of IPV—reaching an average of 35% in South Asia.
• According to the National Library of Medicine, 32% of ever-married Indian women reported experiencing physical, sexual, or emotional violence from their husbands.
• In India, the prevalent spousal violence are physical (28%), emotional (14%) and sexual (6%).
• The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reported 428,278 cases of crimes against women in 2021, marking a 15.3% increase from 2020 (371,503 cases).
• The majority of these cases under the Indian Penal Code were classified as:
• "cruelty by husband or his relatives" (31.8%)
• "assault on women with intent to outrage her modesty" (20.8%)
• "kidnapping and abduction of women" (17.6%), and "rape" (7.4%).
• The crime rate, registered per lakh women population, rose to 64.5 in 2021 from 56.5 in 2020.

History of Elimination of Violence against Women:

• It dates back to 1981 when women’s rights activists began marking 25 November as a day against gender-based violence.
• This day pays homage to the Mirabal sisters—three Dominican political activists brutally murdered in 1960 by order of the country’s ruler, Rafael Trujillo (1930-1961).
• In a significant stride towards combating violence against women, the UN General Assembly, in December 1993, adopted the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, laying the groundwork for global efforts to eradicate such violence.
• In February 2000, the UN General Assembly, officially designated 25 November as the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women.
• This resolution urged governments, international organizations and NGOs to unite in organizing activities annually on this date, fostering public awareness and collective action to address and eliminate violence against women and girls worldwide.

Factors Influencing Violence:

• Men's Predisposing Factors: Men are more likely to engage in violence if they have low education, a history of maltreatment in childhood, witnessed domestic violence against their mothers, misuse alcohol, hold unequal gender views supporting violence, and possess a sense of entitlement over women.
• Women's Vulnerability Factors: Women are more likely to face intimate partner violence if they have lower education, witnessed their mothers being abused, experienced childhood abuse, and hold attitudes accepting violence, male privilege, and the subordinate status of women.
• Effective Interventions: Advocacy and empowerment counseling, along with home visitation, show promise in preventing or reducing intimate partner violence against women.
• Impact of Conflict and Displacement: Situations of conflict, post-conflict, and displacement can worsen existing violence, including by intimate partners and non-partner sexual violence.

Root Causes of Violence Against Women:

• Gender Disparity: Gender inequality deeply ingrained in society exposes women to various forms of violence.
• Discriminatory gender norms and stereotypes contribute to structural inequality.
• Psychiatric Morbidity: Psychiatric morbidity encompasses both physical and psychological deterioration due to mental or psychological conditions, often linked to alcohol consumption.
• Regular alcohol consumption by husbands correlates strongly with poor mental health in women. Alcohol serves as a situational factor, heightening the risk of violence by diminishing inhibitions and impairing judgment.
• Sociodemographic Factors: Patriarchy is a significant contributor to violence against women.
• Higher economic status and perceived power of women to challenge traditional gender roles increase the risk of violence.
• Family Factors: Exposure to harsh physical discipline and witnessing parental violence during childhood predicts victimization and perpetration of violence in adulthood.
• Traditional and Cultural Practices: Female genital mutilation leads to severe physical and psychological consequences.
• Acid attacks, driven by family disputes or rejection of marriage proposals, cause disfigurement and trauma.
• "Honour killings" in various countries uphold the family reputation, justifying violence for reasons like alleged adultery or disapproved relationships.
• Early marriages, with or without consent, undermine the health and autonomy of girls, constituting a form of violence.
• Judiciary and Law Enforcement: An insensitive, inefficient, and corrupt judicial system and law enforcement machinery fail to deter various forms of crimes.
• Sociocultural Factors: Deep-rooted stereotypes confining women to primary roles of marriage and motherhood persist.
• The stigma associated with unmarried, separated, or divorced status perpetuates gender-based violence.
• The custom of dowry remains prevalent in Indian marriages, contributing to the problem

Impact of Violence Against Women:

• Health Ramifications: Violence, regardless of its form, profoundly affects women's physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health.
• Adverse consequences extend to self-esteem, work capacity, and decision-making abilities concerning fertility.
• Economic Implications: Violence against women carries significant economic repercussions for both individual households and the nation.
• Direct Costs: These include the loss of income, productivity, healthcare expenses, and the cost of social services.
• Indirect Costs: Impact on child well-being, female and child mortality, and the intergenerational social and psychological toll.
• Development Challenges: Violence acts as a barrier to women's participation in development and planning programs at both micro and macro levels.
• It restricts women's freedom to act or move freely, hindering their access to and experience of the benefits of development.
• Violence poses a challenge to poverty alleviation programs, impeding the equitable distribution of resources.
• Rights Impediment: Any form of violence against women obstructs the realization of their fundamental rights as outlined in Article 14, 21, 19, and 32 of the Indian Constitution.

Way Forward to Addressing Gender-Based Violence:

• Gender-Based Legislation: Enact and rigorously enforce legislation that promotes gender equality, addressing discrimination against women in marriage, divorce, custody laws, inheritance laws, and asset ownership.
• Financial Empowerment: Enhance women's access to paid employment opportunities, fostering financial independence.
• National Plans and Policies: Develop and allocate resources for national plans and policies dedicated to addressing violence against women comprehensively.
• Enhanced Crime Surveillance: Improve the systems for collecting crime surveillance data specifically related to violence against women.
• Capacity Building and Training: Provide comprehensive training to service providers and law enforcement officers, enabling them to effectively handle cases of violence against women.
• Prevention of Recurrence: Implement strategies to prevent the recurrence of violence by early identification of women and children experiencing abuse and offering appropriate referrals and support.
• Promotion of Egalitarian Norms: Integrate the promotion of egalitarian gender norms into life skills and comprehensive sexuality education curricula for young people.
• Gender-Based Surveys: Generate evidence on effective strategies and the magnitude of the issue by conducting population-based surveys.
• Include violence against women in demographic and health surveys, surveillance, and health information systems.

Why is it in the News?

The International Space Station (ISS) celebrated its 25th anniversary on November 20, 2023. It was launched in 1998, the first module marked the beginning of a remarkable journey. With over 140,000 Earth orbits and a quarter-century milestone, the ISS remains a symbol of peaceful collaboration for scientific endeavors.

What is the International Space Station (ISS)?

• The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station that was assembled in low earth orbit (LEO) by the United States and Russia, with assistance and components from a multinational consortium.
• It is a collaborative effort between multiple space agencies, including the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), the Federal Space Agency of Russia (Roscosmos), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
• The ISS has been inhabited continuously and serves as an important platform for research and exploration in space.
• The success of the ISS is largely due to the implementation of various space standards and agreements, which help to ensure that the station is designed, operated, and maintained safely and efficiently.
• ISS is the longest continuous human presence in space, amounting to around 25 years.
• However, it is not the first-ever manned space station as Salyut, Almaz, Mir, and Skylab preceded it in this regard.
• Moreover, ISS is divided into two zones, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and the United States Orbital Segment (USOS).
• ROS is where Russia’s cosmonauts work, whereas USOS is where space crews from the US, Japan, Canada, and Europe collaborate.

When did the International Space Station launch?

• The first segment of the ISS — the Zarya Control Module — was Russian and launched on November 20, 1998.
• Zarya supplied fuel storage and battery power, and served as a docking zone for other space vehicles arriving at the ISS.
• One month later, on December 4, 1998, the US launched the Unity Node 1 module.
• Together, the two modules were the start of a functioning space laboratory.
• Over the course of 42 assembly flights, the ISS became what it is today.
• Among the first “live-in” astronauts were Bill Shepherd of NASA and Roscosmos cosmonauts Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev.
• Since then, the ISS has been continuously inhabited.

Characteristics of ISS:

• Size and Composition: Weighing around 460 tons, the ISS boasts a habitable volume comparable to a Boeing 747 aircraft's interior.
• Comprising interconnected modules, laboratories, living quarters, and docking ports, forming a complex structure in space.
• Orbit and Circulation: Travels at a speed of 8 kilometers (5 miles) per second, completing an orbit around Earth every 90 minutes.
• Generates 16 sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour cycle, passing overhead multiple times daily.
• Mission Durations: Standard missions last approximately six months, though crew members may have shorter or longer stays.
• During their tenure, astronauts and cosmonauts conduct experiments, maintain systems, and perform essential tasks for the station's functioning.
• Presence of International Crew: The ISS is continuously occupied by a diverse crew hailing from various nations.
• Rotating crews of astronauts and cosmonauts live and work on the station, contributing to scientific research and station upkeep.
• Scientific Endeavors: Provides a unique environment for scientific experiments in microgravity, spanning biology, physics, astronomy, and materials science.
• Serves as a testbed for technologies crucial for future deep-space exploration.
• Global Symbol of Unity: The ISS stands as a testament to international collaboration in space exploration, fostering unity among participating nations.
• It exemplifies the peaceful coexistence of astronauts from different backgrounds in the pursuit of shared scientific goals.

Why Is the Space Station Important?

• The significance of the Space Station lies in its role as a platform for diverse scientific research and experiments in the distinctive microgravity setting of space.
• Microgravity, also known as near-zero gravity or weightlessness, provides a unique environment for researchers worldwide to explore various fields, including biology, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences.
• Through the ISS, valuable insights have been gained in areas such as human health in space, materials science, and climate change.
• The station serves as a continuous habitat for human presence in space, marking a sustained human presence since the arrival of the first crew.

What do astronauts do onboard the ISS?

• When ISS astronauts not conducting scientific experiments, they go on regular spacewalks to add new components to the station, such as robotic arms, or run maintenance.
• There have been times when astronauts have had to inspect or fix holes that were created by space debris.
• The astronauts are also on a strict health regimen. They have to mitigate the loss of muscle and bone mass, which is caused by microgravity in space.
• That includes working out on specially designed machines, including treadmills, for at least two hours a day.
• But the astronauts’ daily exercise is used to improve our scientific understanding of the effects of space on our bodies.

What scientific discoveries on the ISS have benefited life on Earth?

• Astronauts have conducted hundreds of scientific experiments on the ISS.
• Sometimes they experiment on themselves, monitoring their general health, nutrition, or the effects of solar radiation and sometimes they conduct experiments for scientists on Earth.
• These experiments have led to numerous scientific breakthroughs.
• From Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease to cancer, asthma, and heart disease — it’s all been studied in space.
• Scientists say some medical experiments are best done in space because cells behave in microgravity more like they do inside the human body, but it’s difficult to recreate such conditions on Earth.
• There have been discoveries to benefit drug development, new water purification systems, methods to mitigate muscle and bone atrophy, and those that have led innovations in food production.

How long will the ISS be operational?

• Plans for the future operation of the ISS were thrown into uncertainty with the start of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in early 2022.
• Both the European Space Agency and national bodies withdrew from international collaborations with Russia, and Russia said it was leaving the ISS to build its own space station.
• Also, old and new spacefaring nations want to make an independent mark on space.
• They include Japan, China, India, the United Arab Emirates and others.
• The US and Europe have said they remain committed to the International Space Station through 2030.
• But plans are afoot for a post-ISS world, as well: NASA is almost entirely focused on its Artemis program and plans to populate the moon and ESA is working toward a new space station, which it is calling Starlab.

Why is it in the News?

The Philippines is now exploring Japan and India as alternative partners for development and security cooperation.

Concerns between the China and Philippines:

• The relationship between the Philippines and China has been strained for decades due to long-standing territorial disputes in the South China Sea.
• The Philippines claims sovereignty over several islands and reefs in the South China Sea, while China maintains a sweeping claim over the entire area, known as the "nine-dash line."
• These competing claims have led to numerous incidents of Chinese vessels blocking or harassing Philippine fishing boats and military vessels.
• In 2012, the Philippines filed an arbitration case against China under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) challenging the legality of China's nine-dash line claim.
• In 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines, finding that China's nine-dash line claim had no legal basis.
• However, China has refused to accept the ruling.
• The South China Sea is a strategically important waterway, with an estimated $3.3 trillion in trade passing through it annually.
• It is also believed to be rich in natural resources, including oil and gas.
• The ongoing territorial disputes have raised tensions in the region and have the potential to escalate into conflict.
• In addition to the territorial disputes, there have been other issues that have strained relations between the Philippines and China including China's militarization of the South China Sea, its fishing practices in Philippine waters, and its human rights record.

Bilateral Relations Between India and the Philippines:

India and the Philippines have enjoyed a warm and cordial relationship since establishing diplomatic ties in 1949, shortly after both countries gained independence. The relationship is rooted in shared values of democracy, pluralism, and the rule of law, as well as a growing economic partnership.

Political and Strategic Cooperation:

• India and the Philippines have maintained regular high-level visits and engagements, fostering a strong political and strategic partnership.
• The two countries have cooperated on a range of issues, including maritime security, counterterrorism, and defense.
• Intensification of relations with the Philippines resulted from India’s Look East Policy (1992) and further diversified with the Act East Policy (2014).

Economic Partnership:

• India and the Philippines have a growing economic partnership, with bilateral trade reaching over $3 billion in 2022.
• India is currently the Philippines' fifteenth-largest trading partner.
• The two countries have signed several agreements to enhance economic cooperation, including the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), which is expected to further boost trade and investment.

Cultural and People-to-People Exchanges:

• Both countries have active diaspora communities that contribute to cultural exchange and people-to-people linkages.
• India and the Philippines have signed agreements on cultural cooperation and education exchange.

Recent Developments:

• In recent years, India and the Philippines have elevated their relationship to a "Strategic Partnership."
• This reflects the growing convergence of their interests in the Indo-Pacific region and their commitment to promote a rules-based international order.

Key Areas of Cooperation:

• Maritime Security: India and the Philippines have a shared interest in maintaining peace and stability in the maritime domain.
• The two countries have conducted joint naval exercises and collaborated on maritime surveillance and information sharing.
• Counterterrorism: India and the Philippines have pledged to cooperate in combating terrorism and preventing the spread of violent extremism.
• They have shared intelligence and expertise in counterterrorism operations and training.
• Defense Cooperation: Key developments include the BrahMos missile deal, the establishment of a resident Defense Attache office in Manila, and the consideration of India's proposal for a concessional Line of Credit to fulfill the defense needs of the Philippines.
• Additionally, collaboration extends to maritime domain awareness (MDA), joint patrols, and the exchange of information.
• The two countries have also conducted joint military exercises to enhance interoperability and strengthen defense ties.

Japan and India's Involvement in Southeast Asia:

• Free and Open Indo-Pacific: A joint effort to counter China's growing assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Free and Open Indo-Pacific is an umbrella term that encompasses Indo-Pacific-specific strategies of countries with similar interests in the region.
• Japan's Free and Open Indo-Pacific aligns with India's Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative.
• Partnership with ASEAN: Strengthening economic, political, and cultural ties with ASEAN member nations.
• Infrastructure Development: Japan's Partnership for Quality Infrastructure involvement in Southeast Asian projects (ports, roads, and energy facilities).
• India also expresses interest in regional infrastructure projects.
• Connectivity Projects: Both nations actively promote connectivity, with India contributing through projects like the Trilateral Highway (connecting India, Myanmar, and Thailand).
• Economic Assistance: Providing economic assistance and development aid to support socio-economic growth in Southeast Asia.
• Assistance includes financial support, capacity building, and technology transfer.
• Security Cooperation: Engaging in security dialogues and joint military exercises with Southeast Asian countries.
• Collaborating on common security challenges such as maritime security and counter-terrorism.
• Human Resource Development: Joint efforts in human resource development programs, including scholarships and training opportunities.
• Aimed at enhancing skills and knowledge across various sectors.
• Regional Forums: Active participation in regional forums like the East Asia Summit (EAS) and ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF).
• Addressing regional challenges and fostering dialogue on a variety of issues.

India-Japan Relations:

The roots of the relationship trace back to ancient times when Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the 6th century. A robust partnership emerged from India's Look East Policy, evolving into a 'Special Strategic and Global Partnership' in 2014.

• Economic Cooperation: Strong trade and investment ties with significant bilateral investments.
• Initiatives like Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) and Neemrana Industrial Park for Japanese firms.
• Collaboration in the automobile sector, exemplified by Maruti Suzuki.
• Infrastructure Investment: Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) plays a pivotal role in investing in India's infrastructure projects.
• Contributions range from the Delhi Metro to water and sanitation projects.
• Strategic Cooperation: Shared commitment to a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific.
• Highlighted in Japan's National Security Strategy (NSS-2022) and 2021 Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA).
• Defence Collaboration: Steadily growing cooperation in response to regional security challenges.
• Initiatives like the 2015 Agreements on the transfer of defence Equipment and Technology..
• In terms of security, India and Japan constantly engage in varied platforms ranging from regular bilateral military exercises and two-plus-two meetings to multilateral frameworks such as the Quad and the G20.
• Technology Partnership: Collaboration on cutting-edge technologies like robotics, artificial intelligence, and renewable energy.
• Examples include the India-Japan Digital Partnership (I-JDP) and cooperation in nuclear technology.
• Regional and Global Cooperation: Active collaboration on climate change, counterterrorism, and United Nations reforms.
• Joint development of the Asia-Africa Growth Corridor for economic collaboration and capacity-building in African countries.
• Cultural and People-to-People Ties: Promotion of tourism, educational exchanges, and scholarships.
• Initiatives like the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Programme and the India-Japan Global Partnership Summit foster personal bonds between citizens.

Accordingly, as India is significantly deepening and broadening its ties with Southeast Asian countries, such as the Philippines, India should consider taking its third-country developmental model with Japan into the sub-region of the greater Indo-Pacific at a time when resident countries are looking for alternative sources of development and security amidst the polarising dynamics of the U.S.-China power competition.

Why is it in the News?

A new report, published by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), showed that economically developed countries fell short of their promise to jointly mobilise $100 billion a year, towards the climate mitigation and adaptation needs of developing countries, in 2021 – one year past the 2020 deadline.

What is the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)?

• The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is an association of 38 nations in Europe, the Americas, and the Pacific.
• Its members and key partners represent 80% of world trade and investment.
• The goal of the OECD is to promote the economic welfare of its members.
• It also coordinates its efforts to aid developing countries outside of its membership.
• As a result, its programs help promote reform in more than 100 countries worldwide.
• The OECD's main headquarters is located in Paris (France)
• The OECD collects, analyzes, and reports on economic growth data for its members.
• This gives them the knowledge to further their prosperity and fight poverty. It also balances the impact of economic growth on the environment.
• Committees within the OECD analyze the data and make policy recommendations.
• It's up to each member country to decide how to use OECD recommendations.
• The OECD publishes mainly two reports:
• International Migration Outlook
• Programme for International Student Assessment

Key Findings of the OECD Report Ahead of COP 28:

• The OECD has released a report titled 'Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries in 2013-2021.'
• This comprehensive report highlights the collective patterns in annual climate finance contributed and mobilized by developed nations for developing countries during the period from 2013 to 2021.
• In-depth analyses are presented, offering insights into climate themes, sectors, financial instruments, and regional distributions specifically for the years 2016 to 2021.
• Additionally, the report offers essential recommendations for international providers to enhance financial support for adaptation efforts and to more efficiently engage private finance in climate action.

Major Takeaways from the Report Published by OECD:

• Failure to Meet Commitments: The report revealed that the economically developed countries had failed to meet their commitment to together raise $100 billion annually by 2021, one year after the 2020 deadline, to help developing nations with their climate adaptation and mitigation needs.
• According to the report, affluent nations raised $89.6 billion in 2021, however, the amount of money allocated for adaptation decreased by 14% from 2020 to 2021.
• The ability of developing nations to meet their needs for climate adaptation and mitigation is lowered when sufficient climate funding is not raised.
• It also weakens confidence in the industrialized world's sincerity in addressing the climate catastrophe among the world's poorer nations.
• Loan-Centric Climate Finance: According to the OECD study, $49.6 billion in loans were given out of the $73.1 billion that the public sector raised in 2021 through bilateral and multilateral channels.
• It illuminates the degree to which wealthy nations must rely on loans at market rates in order to meet their climate finance commitments.
• For instance, a research team's evaluation of the worldwide flows of climate finance from 2011 to 2020 revealed that 61% of the funding came from loans.

Issue With 'Additionality'

• Another issue in the OECD report pertains to additionality.
• The UNFCCC states that developed countries “shall provide new and additional financial resources to meet the agreed full costs incurred by developing country Parties in complying with their obligations under the convention”.
• This means developed countries can’t cut overseas development assistance (ODA) in order to finance climate needs because that would effectively rob Peter to pay Paul.
• In the real world, it could cut off support for healthcare in order to reallocate that money to, say, install solar panels.
• The “new and additional finance” also means developed countries can’t double-count.
• For example, a renewable energy project could contribute to both emission reductions and overall development in a region.
• As per the U.N. Convention, however, donor countries can’t categorise such funding as both ODA and climate finance because it wouldn’t fulfill the “new and additional” criterion.
• A few years ago, European Union officials admitted to double-counting development aid as climate finance.

What Counts as Climate Finance?

• At present, there is no commonly agreed definition of ‘climate finance’ because developed countries have endeavored repeatedly to keep it vague.
• For example, at the COP 27 in Egypt last year, Australia and the U.K. even sought to end discussions to define ‘climate finance’.
• In the run-up to the COP 26 in Glasgow, the U.S. led an effort to block debate on a common definition, alongside Switzerland, Sweden, and some other developed countries.
• The lack of definitional clarity has reportedly led to strange situations like funding for chocolate and gelato stores in Asia and a coastal hotel expansion in Haiti being tagged as climate finance.
• The ambiguity works in favour of richer countries because it leaves the door open to arbitrarily classify any funding, including ODA and high-cost loans, as climate finance and escape the scrutiny that a clearer definition might bring.
• So while developed countries can claim they have provided billions in climate finance, the actual flows need to be checked for whether they actually went into climate mitigation and adaptation in developing countries or something else.

How much do developing countries need?

• According to the OECD assessment, climate investments for developing nations are expected to reach approximately $1 trillion year by 2025 and $2.4 trillion annually between 2026 and 2030.
• In contrast, the $100 billion objective is insufficient and even more so given that it has not yet been reached.

What role can the private sector play?

• To meet the scale of the challenge, people like the U.S. climate envoy John Kerry and World Bank president Ajay Banga have routinely emphasised the role the private sector could play.
• But the OECD report shows that private financing for climate action has stagnated for a decade.
• The problem is particularly worse for climate adaptation because investment in this sector can’t generate the sort of high returns that private investors seek.
• There also haven’t yet been signs that the private sector is interested in massively scaling up its climate investments.

What is Climate Change?

• Climate change is the result of long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns.
• Natural variations, like those influenced by changes in the solar cycle, can contribute to these shifts.
• However, since the 1800s, human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, have emerged as the primary driver of climate change.
• The combustion of fossil fuels produces greenhouse gas emissions, creating a metaphorical blanket around the Earth.
• This 'blanket' traps the sun's heat, leading to an increase in temperatures.
• The rising temperatures, a consequence of climate change, accelerate the melting of ice.
• This, in turn, contributes to elevated sea levels, resulting in flooding and erosion.

Why is it in the News?

On November 12, the under-construction Silkyara-Barkot tunnel on the Yamunotri National Highway in Uttarakhand’s Uttarkashi district collapsed.

News Summary:

• On November 12, 2023, the Silkyara Bend - Barkot tunnel, which was under construction, collapsed in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand.
• The collapse trapped at least 40 workers inside the tunnel.
• The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), the State Disaster Response Force (SDRF), and the police promptly initiated and led the rescue operations.
• The tunnel is a part of the Char Dham all-weather road project which commenced in 2016.

What is the Char Dham All Weather Road Project?

• It is a central govt. Project to improve the existing condition of Highways in the state of Uttarakhand.
• In this project, the govt. will upgrade and develop the road which connects all four 'Dhams' i.e.
• Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, and Badrinath  in the upper Himalayas.
• The 12,000-crore dream project will turn 1100 km of damaged highways of Uttarakhand into all-season roads.

About the Silkyara Tunnel which Collapsed:

• The tunnel, designed to connect Silkyara to Dandal gaon in Uttarkashi district, spans a total length of 4.5 km.
• As part of the Char Dham all-weather road project, this double-lane tunnel is recognized as one of the longest and aims to reduce the journey from Uttarkashi to Yamunotri Dham by 26 kilometers.
• Construction progress includes 2.3 km completed from the Silkyara side and 1.6 km from the Barkot end. Approximately, a 400m stretch of the tunnel is yet to be constructed.
• Regarding the incident:
• The Silkyara Tunnel, located on Uttarkashi-Yamnotri Road, became the site of the accident where workers are currently trapped. The collapse occurred approximately 270m from the entrance on the Silkyara side.

What are the Tunnel Excavation Techniques Utilised in India?

In India, two primary methods of Tunnel Excavation are employed: the drill and blast method (DBM) and tunnel-boring machines (TBMs).

• Tunnel-boring machines (TBMs): TBMs bore into the rock from the front using a rotating head.
• The excavated tunnel section is supported by installing precast concrete segments.
• TBMs are preferred when the rock cover is up to 400 meters in height.
• Notably, the TBM method was applied in constructing tunnels for the Delhi Metro.
• Drill and Blast Method (DBM): DBM involves drilling holes into the rock and loading them with explosives.
• Upon detonation, the rock breaks apart.
• DBM is the chosen method for mountains ranging from 1000 to 1200 meters in height.
• This method is commonly used for tunnel construction in the Himalayas, Jammu & Kashmir, and Uttarakhand.

What could be the Possible Causes of the Tunnel Collapse in Uttarakhand?

• Presence of Fractured or Fragile Rock: Fractured rocks with numerous joints are weaker, making them susceptible to collapse under significant overhead weight, possibly leading to tunnel collapse.
• Water Seepage: Over time, water seepage can erode loose rock particles, creating a void on the top of the tunnel, which might contribute to the tunnel caving in.
• Landslide-Prone Young Himalayan Rock System: The proximity of the incident site to the Main Central Thrust (MCT)/Barkot thrust of the Himalayas raises the possibility that seismic waves could trigger a landslide in the tunnel.
• Improper Study of Shear Zone and Lack of Protection Measures: Experts suggest that the lack of adequate geological mapping studies of the shear zone and failure to implement protective measures, such as steel ribs, rock bolts, or shotcrete, may have contributed to the collapse due to insufficient monitoring.

In addition to these, expert-provided reasons, concerns have been raised about the Himalayas' fragility in supporting massive infrastructure projects like the Char-Dham project and large-scale hydroelectric power projects.

What Measures Have Been Taken to Ensure Safe Tunnel Construction in India?

• Establishment of Tunnel Zone Department in the MoRTH: A dedicated Tunnel Zone department has been set up in the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH).
• Its primary role is to enhance tunneling capabilities and formulate guidelines for the design and construction of tunnels.
• Formation of Expert Committee on Tunnel: An Expert Committee on Tunnel has been constituted to address technical challenges arising during the implementation of tunnel projects across the country.
• Indian Standard Code for Tunnel Construction: The issuance of Indian Standard Codes, specifically IS 15026 (2002) and IS 4756 (1978), provides comprehensive guidelines for tunnel design, lighting, and ventilation.
• Implementation of IRC Codes for Tunnels: The implementation of the IRC code for tunnels in 2019 ensures that road tunnels adhere to international standards.
• Adherence to Standard Codes in Tunnel Construction: Ensuring compliance with various standard codes, including Integrated Tunnel Control Systems (ITCS), The Work in Compressed Air Regulations 1996, Emergency Evacuation and Rescue Plans for tunnels, and guidelines from the Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO).
• Incorporation of International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association Safety Practices: Following safety practices outlined by the International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association, emphasizing specific escape routes marked by signs and the development of contingency plans for emergency situations during tunnel construction.

What Steps Should Be Taken for Ensuring Safe Tunnel Construction?

• Enhanced Geotechnical Studies: In India, the simultaneous design and construction of tunnel projects should be accompanied by more detailed geotechnical studies, including petrographic analysis.
• This information is crucial for incorporating precise design and construction elements into the tunnel project.
• Ongoing Monitoring by Specialist Geologists: Independent specialist geologists should regularly visit construction sites to conduct thorough inspections.
• This practice ensures the early identification of potential failures and helps determine the stand-up time of the rock. (Rock stand-up time refers to the duration for which a rock can remain stable without support.)
• Testing Adequacy of Tunnel Supports: All tunnel supports, such as shotcrete, rock bolts, steel ribs, and tunnel pipe umbrellas, need rigorous testing to ensure their adequacy in preventing tunnel collapse.
• This proactive approach helps in maintaining the stability and integrity of the tunnel structure.
• Emergency Evacuation Arrangements: Robust arrangements for safe evacuation in the event of a collapse are imperative.
• Deployment of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) personnel, along with the provision of proper safety equipment, is essential. Construction companies bidding for projects should submit comprehensive safety plans as part of their project proposals.

Why is it in the News?

The Punjab and Haryana High Court on Nov 17 quashed a law passed by the Haryana government in 2020 that provided 75% reservation in private jobs to residents of the state.

Context:

• The Punjab and Haryana high court on Friday struck down a Haryana law that reserved 75% private sector jobs, paying up to ?30,000 a month, for local candidates.
• The court found it unconstitutional and stated that the 2021 law violated fundamental rights as per the Constitution, emphasizing that individual rights should align with the Constitution's text and spirit, not popular or majoritarian notions.

Key Provisions of Haryana State Employment of Local Candidates Act 2020:

• The Act is applicable to all private companies, societies, partnership firms, trusts, any person employing ten or more persons in Haryana, or any other entity as may be notified by the Government.
• The Act requires private sector employers to reserve 75% of job posts that offer a salary of less than INR 30,000 for individuals who are domiciled in Haryana.
• The Government of Haryana has also made the residency (domicile) requirement to 5 years for a person to obtain a residency certificate.
• The Act enables the Haryana Government to focus on securing employment opportunities for domiciled individuals.
• However, domiciled linked reservations are not a new concept since other States have also introduced similar laws.
• For instance, the Government of Andhra Pradesh notified the Andhra Pradesh Employment of Local Candidates in the Industries / Factories Act, 2019 which provided for reservation of 75% of posts in existing and upcoming factories, industries, joint ventures, and public-private partnership projects for local candidates.
• However, central or state governments or any organisation owned by them were kept outside the ambit of this Act.
• Employers can seek an exemption if enough local candidates with required skills are unavailable; the Designated Officer decides based on an inquiry.
• The law was made applicable for 10 years but was stayed by the high court last year.

Haryana was also one of several states that have enacted laws in recent years to provide reservations for local residents in the private sector. These include Maharashtra (up to 80% quota), Karnataka (75%), Andhra Pradesh (75%) and Madhya Pradesh (70%). However the validity of most of these laws has been challenged before the Supreme Court and high courts.

Who challenged the law and on what grounds?

• The Faridabad Industries Association and other Haryana-based associations went to court, contending that Haryana wanted to create reservations in the private sector by introducing a policy of “sons of the soil”, which was an infringement of the constitutional rights of employers.
• The petitioners argued that private sector jobs are purely based on skills and an analytical bent of mind, and employees have a fundamental right to work in any part of India.
• Therefore, they argued, “The act of the respondent (government) forcing the employers to employ local candidates in the private sector vide this impugned Act is the violation of the federal structure framed by the Constitution of India, whereby the government cannot act contrary to the public interest and cannot benefit one class”.
• The Haryana government argued that it had the power to create such reservations under Article 16(4) of the Constitution, which says that the right to equality in public employment does not prevent the State from “making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State”.

What was the ruling of the High Court?

• The High Court ruled that the law violates Part III of the Constitution (Fundamental Rights) and declared it ineffective "from the date it came into force."
• It expressed concerns that certain provisions, such as the obligation for employers to submit quarterly reports and the authorization for officers to request documents or verification, resembled an "Inspector Raj" situation.
• The court concluded that the state's actions constituted an "absolute control over a private employer," leading to violations of an individual's right to engage in occupation, trade, or business under Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution.
• The judges held that notions about individual rights have to be in accordance with the text and spirit of the Constitution and not popular or majoritarian notions.
• The court also said that:
• “The state cannot direct the private employers to do what has been forbidden to do under the Constitution of India.
• It cannot do such discrimination against the individuals on account of the fact that they do not belong to a certain state and have a negative discrimination against other citizens of the country”.

The Structure and Development of Reservations in Public Employment in India:

• Reservation in public employment was initially limited to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
• Later extended to include Other Backward Classes (OBCs) based on Mandal Commission recommendations (1980).
• Mandal Commission's Recommendations:
• The Mandal Commission proposed a 27% reservation for OBCs in central services and public sector undertakings.
• This was an addition to the existing reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
• Constitutional Perspective: Reservation is not a fundamental right.
• While the constitution emphasizes non-discrimination in public employment, the state has the authority to promote specific societal sections through reservation in education or employment.
• Basis for Reservation: Reservation can be based on factors such as domicile (residence) or backwardness.
• Parliamentary Authority: Parliament can enact laws regarding employment to a state office, specifying requirements like residence within that state (Article 16(3)).
• State's Authority: The State has the power to advance socially and educationally backward classes or Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Article 15(4)).
• Provisions can be made to reserve posts for backward classes not adequately represented in the State services (Article 16(4)).

Some Important Judgements related to Reservation:

• Indra Sawhney v. Union of India Case (1992):
• The court affirmed the constitutionality of 27% reservation but set a 50% cap on public employment reservation.
• The court recommended excluding advanced sections within OBCs (creamy layer) from reservation benefits.
• M.Nagaraj v. Union Of India Case (2006 ):
• The Supreme Court validated the constitutional legitimacy of the 77th Amendment, allowing the state to reserve posts for underrepresented backward classes.
• It emphasized excluding the creamy layer from the reservation, extending this principle to Scheduled Castes and Tribes.
• Dr. Jaishri Laxmanrao Patil vs Chief Minister Case (2021):
• The Supreme Court reaffirmed the Indra Sawhney decision and invalidated Section 4(1)(a) and Section 4(1)(b) of the Act.
• These sections provided 12% reservation for Marathas in educational institutions and 13% reservation in public employment.
• This judicial decision sent a strong message, highlighting instances where certain state governments exceeded the prescribed limits on reservations without any justifiable exceptional circumstances.
• Janhit Abhiyan (EWS) Case (2022):
• The Supreme Court upheld the validity of the 103rd Constitutional Amendment, providing 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
• The court clarified that the EWS quota doesn't breach the 50% reservation cap, as it falls within the non-reserved category.

Why is it in the News?

India and the UK officials are expected to soon hold the next round of talks for the proposed free trade agreement (FTA) to iron out differences on issues such as social security pact, automobiles, medical devices, and the movement of professionals.

Context:

• External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar discussed the India-UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Britain’s Prime Minister Rishi Sunak and Foreign Secretary David Cameron recently.
• These talks were held as the bilateral trade between India and the UK increased to USD 20.36 billion in 2022-23 from USD 17.5 billion in 2021-22.
• When signed, the India-UK FTA will serve as a template for an agreement with India’s second-largest trade partner, the European Union (EU).
• Breaking from the look east policy for trade deals under the UPA that saw widening deficits with Japan, South Korea, and ASEAN countries, the government is counting on economic integration with Western and African nations to fuel export growth.

What is a Free Trade Agreement?

• A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is a deal between two or more countries aimed at lessening obstacles to the exchange of imports and exports.
• In a free trade arrangement, goods and services can move across borders with minimal government tariffs, quotas, subsidies, or prohibitions.
• This concept stands in contrast to trade protectionism or economic isolationism.
• FTAs can take various forms, such as Preferential Trade Agreements, Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreements, and Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreements (CEPAs).

Expectations from the India-UK Free Trade Agreement:

• Merchandise Trade: Indian products like petroleum, medicines, diamonds, machine parts, airplanes, and wooden furniture worth $6 billion already enjoy tariff-free access to the UK, even without the FTA, so there might be limited additional benefits.
• Services: India aims for immediate advantages, such as obtaining priority visas for Indian professionals on short-term assignments in the UK.
• However, acquiring a substantial number of short-duration business visas may be challenging, given the UK's cautious approach post-Brexit, associating visas with immigration.
• Rules of Origin: Ensuring that products from third countries receive FTA benefits only if they undergo significant transformation in the exporting country.
• India's preference for conservative rules of origin may lead to prolonged discussions and negotiations.
• Government Procurement: Allowing UK producers to sell to India’s government procurement sector would create a level playing field.
• Conversely, Indian firms may face a competitive and restricted government procurement market in the UK, necessitating a cautious approach.
• Labour Standards, Gender, Environment, Digital Trade, IPRs: India should establish domestic rules/standards before committing to these aspects under the FTAs.
• Until then, India must avoid undertaking burdensome obligations on non-trade issues.

Factors Behind the India-UK Free Trade Agreement:

• The China Factor: Disruptions in supply chains during the pandemic highlighted the risks of excessive reliance on China, leading Western companies to adopt a 'China-plus one' approach.
• Australia's tensions with China and the complementary nature of the Indian economy created a compelling case for a trade deal between India and the UK.
• India's RCEP Exit: Following its withdrawal from the China-dominated Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), India has been actively pursuing trade agreements with the UK, Australia, and the EU to balance its regional engagement against China.
• Brexit Impact: The UK, facing a challenging election in early 2025, sees a trade deal with India as crucial.
• The negotiations are influenced by the post-Brexit landscape as the UK seeks to strengthen its economic ties globally.

What India will Gain from this FTA?

• India’s labour-intensive sectors such as apparel and gems and jewellery have seen a steep decline in market share over the last five years.
• Indian textile exports face tariffs walls as high as 10% in the UK; a trade deal could put India on par with competition such as Bangladesh, and revive textile exports.
• However, the British Parliament has been warned in a report that granting zero-duty access to Indian textiles under the FTA could bring stress on Least Developed Countries such as Bangladesh.

UK Gain in this Deal:

• Past deals with Japan and the ASEAN countries have shown that the elimination of duty does not automatically result in export growth.
• Also, many Indian exports to the UK already enjoy low or zero tariffs, while British exports to India such as cars, Scotch whisky, and wines, face considerable tariffs of 100-150%.
• Tariff reductions on these goods will potentially offer them deeper access into Indian markets.
• Notably, the average tariff on goods imported from India into the UK is 4.2% but the average tariff in India on goods imported from the UK is 14.6%

What are the Challenges in the India-UK FTA?

• Non-tariff barriers: Modern FTAs go beyond tariff reduction. India could use the negotiations to eliminate non-tariff barriers (NTBs) that have historically been a concern for exporters, especially for agri exports.
• NTBs often come in the form of regulations, standards, testing, certification, or pre-shipment inspection that are aimed at protecting human, animal, or plant health and the environment.
• Vegetable and fruit exporters often face strict limits imposed by European economies on pesticides and other contaminants in agri imports.
• In manufacturing too, Indian products face high rejection based on conformity assessments and technical requirements.
• Issue of carbon tax: Like the EU, the UK is looking to impose a levy on metal imports based on carbon emissions.
• An EU-style carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM) will hurt India’s exports to the UK even if India wins significant removal of tariffs.
• The UK’s carbon tax could be harsh, as one of its aims is to reduce dependence on Russian energy imports.

Why is it in the News?

In an election rally in Telangana, Prime Minister Narendra Modi promised to look into the sub-categorisation of Scheduled Castes (SCs) to identify and help the most backward among them.

Context:

• During an election rally in Telangana, Prime Minister Narendra Modi pledged to examine the sub-categorization of Scheduled Castes (SCs) to identify and support the most backward among them.
• This move is perceived as the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) aiming to attract the Madiga community.
• The Madigas, the largest among all SC communities in the State, have asserted that another SC community, the Malas, is occupying their rightful share of representation.

Is Sub-categorisation within Castes legal?

• Historical Context: The issue arose in 1996 when the Andhra Pradesh government formed a one-man Commission under Justice Ramachandra Raju.
• The Commission recommended sub-categorization of SCs in the state based on evidence of varying backwardness and representation among communities.
• The attempt to implement this recommendation led to legal challenges, reaching the Supreme Court in 2004.
• The Supreme Court then ruled that states lack the power to unilaterally sub-categorize communities in the SCs or Scheduled Tribes (STs) list.
• Legality of Sub-categorization: Over the past two decades, states like Punjab, Bihar, and Tamil Nadu have attempted to enact reservation laws at the state level for sub-categorizing SCs.
• Legal proceedings have ensued, with the Supreme Court establishing a larger Constitution Bench to make a decision on the matter.
• Contradictory Judgments: In a 2020 judgment, a five-judge Bench, led by Justice Arun Mishra, stated that deciding on the benefits in the SCs/STs lists would not be considered "tinkering," and states could proceed.
• This contradicts the 2004 Supreme Court ruling and has led to the 2020 judgment being referred to a larger Bench for clarification.

What is the Union Government’s Stand?

• The Union government established a National Commission to investigate the sub-categorization of Scheduled Castes (SCs) in Andhra Pradesh.
• The Cabinet at that time proposed an amendment to Article 341 of the Constitution of India to facilitate sub-categorization.
• Both the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) and the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) expressed the view that a constitutional amendment was unnecessary.
• They pointed out that Article 16(4) of the Constitution already empowered states to formulate special laws for any backward classes they deemed under-represented.

Arguments in favour of Sub-Categorization within SCs:

• From the Justice Raju Commission to the National Commission, the principal argument for sub-categorisation of SCs has been the graded inequalities among SC communities.
• The Justice Raju Commission was formed by the Andhra Pradesh state government in 1996 to look into the matter.
• The thrust of it has been that even among the marginalised, there are communities that have lesser access to basic facilities.
• As a result, the relatively more forward communities among them have managed to avail benefits consistently while crowding the more backward ones out.
• The solution, therefore is to sub-categorise the communities and provide separate reservations to the more backward communities within the reservation meant for SCs.

Arguments Against Sub-Categorisation within SCs:

• Both the SC and ST Commissions have noted that allotting separate reservations within the categories would not really address the root cause of the problem.
• In an internal note prepared by the NCST, it explained that the most backward SCs are lagging so far behind forward SC communities that a separate quota would not help.
• It said that the idea was to ensure representation at all levels.
• But given the disparity, even if posts were reserved at higher levels, these most backward SCs would not have enough candidates to be considered for it in the first place.
• Both the NCSC and the NCST had thus recommended that existing schemes and government benefits should first reach these sections before any sub-categorisation.

Legal experts emphasize the crucial need for substantial data to substantiate the sub-categorization initiative. But what is primarily needed is concrete population numbers of each community and sub-community and their respective socio-economic data, which are the only thing that can provide a reasonable ground to decide how castes can be categorised, how much percentage should be given, etc.

National Commission for Scheduled Castes:

• The National Commission for Scheduled Castes is a constitutional body established with a view to providing safeguards against the exploitation of Scheduled Castes and Anglo-Indian communities to promote and protect their social, educational, economic, and cultural interests, special provisions were made in the Constitution.
• Article 338 of the Indian constitution deals with National Commission for Scheduled Castes.
• Historical Evolution:
• Initially, Article 338 of the Constitution provided for the appointment of a Special Officer, known as the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
• 65th Amendment Act, 1990 replaced the single-member system with the establishment of a multi-member National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST).
• The 89th Amendment Act, 2003 resulted in the creation of two separate commissions in 2004:
• National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC)
• National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)

Composition:

• The NCSC comprises a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson, and three additional Members, appointed by the President through a warrant under his hand and seal.
• The President of India also determines their conditions of service and tenure of office.

Functions:

• The NCSC is entrusted with several key responsibilities, including:
• Investigating and monitoring matters related to constitutional and legal safeguards for the SCs.
• Inquiring into specific complaints regarding the deprivation of rights and safeguards of the SCs.
• Participating in and advising on the planning process for the socioeconomic development of the SCs.
• Evaluating the progress of SC development under the Union or a state.
• Presenting annual reports to the President on the functioning of these safeguards.
• Making recommendations for effective implementation of safeguards and other measures for the protection, welfare, and socioeconomic development of the SCs.
• Evolution of Responsibilities:
• Until 2018, the NCSC also addressed similar functions concerning the Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
• However, the 102nd Amendment Act, 2018, relieved the commission of this responsibility.

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes:

• It was formed in 2004 by amending Article 338 and introducing Article 338A through the 89th Constitution Amendment Act, making it a constitutional body.
• Objective:
• Article 338A empowers the NCST to oversee the implementation of safeguards for Scheduled Tribes (STs) under the Constitution, prevailing laws, and government orders, and to assess the effectiveness of these safeguards.
• Composition:
• Comprises a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson, and three Members appointed by the President through warrant.
• Mandated that at least one Member must be a woman.
• Term of office for the Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, and Members is three years.
• Chairperson holds the rank of Union Cabinet Minister, Vice-Chairperson as Minister of State, and other Members as Secretary to the Government of India.
• Members are ineligible for appointments beyond two terms.
• Duties and Functions:
• Investigation and Monitoring: Examine and monitor all matters concerning safeguards for STs under the Constitution, existing laws, and government orders.
• Complaint Inquiry: Investigate specific complaints regarding the denial of rights and safeguards for STs.
• Advisory Role: Participate and advise in the planning of socio-economic development for STs, evaluating their progress.
• Annual Reports: Submit annual reports on the operation of safeguards to the President, including necessary recommendations.
• Presidential Rule: The President, following parliamentary laws, may assign additional functions related to the protection, welfare, development, and advancement of STs.

Why is it in the News?

Union Minister Piyush Goyal is attending the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation meeting in the United States today, which will also see US President Joe Biden and his Chinese counterpart Xi Jinping hold their second in-person dialogue since Mr. Biden assumed office in 2021, amid tensions and a trust deficit between the two countries.

What is Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)?

• The Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) is a regional economic forum and was formed in 1989.
• It is a grouping of economies around the Pacific Ocean that aims to promote trade, investment, and economic development in the region.
• The bloc is looking to “leverage the growing interdependence of the Asia-Pacific and create greater prosperity for the people of the region through regional economic integration”.
• APEC started with 12 members in 1989 but has over the years grown to 21, which includes the US, China, Russia, Japan, and Australia.
• The other members include Brunei, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Indonesia, South Korea, Canada, Mexico, Peru, Chile, Malaysia, Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand and Taiwan.
• Taiwan and Hong Kong, which China stakes claim to as its territory, participate separately in the forum.
• APEC accounts for about 62 percent of global GDP and almost half of global trade and around 2.9 billion citizens.
• As of 2018, they represented 48 percent of global trade.
• It operates based on non-binding commitments with decisions reached by consensus and commitments undertaken voluntarily.

Why is India not a member of the APEC Group?

• India attempted to join APEC in 1991, the year the Indian economy was liberalised.
• A majority of the members of the grouping were in favour of India’s inclusion but some opposed it.
• They had reservations about India’s “protectionist instincts” and cited its records on the economic reforms.
• There was also a freeze on membership since 1997.
• However, it was not extended in 2012.
• In 2016, then Union Minister for Commerce and Industry Nirmala Sitharaman told Parliament that the request to join was based on India’s geographical location, the potential size of the economy, and the degree of trade interaction with the Asia-Pacific.
• India remains an observer of APEC and has been expanding trade and investment ties in the region since the 2000s.
• Among other factors, India’s lack of a Pacific coastline has worked against its membership in APEC, but the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) is clearly meant to give India a more central position, given the US focus on creating alternatives and counterweights to China’s economic influence.

How can India benefit from APEC membership?

• “Becoming an APEC member would bring several benefits for India, such as promoting closer economic relations, facilitating trade and investment flows, and opening market access to major economies.
• Aligning with APEC by simplifying and harmonizing trade procedures and regulations could boost India’s exports, attract foreign direct investment, and support domestic initiatives like ‘Make in India‘.
• A membership could encourage the country to “adopt best practices, streamline trade processes and reduce transaction costs”.
• It could facilitate “technology transfer” in important areas like information technology, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, renewable energy and manufacturing.
• The membership will be helpful for improving flows of knowledge, capital, and goods within the region through better coordination of policies.
• Economies such as Japan and South Korea (members of both APEC and IPEF) are also important for India in terms of the technological and production know-how they can provide, as is Taiwan, which is only a member of APEC.

What is the Significance of APEC?

• Since its formation, the grouping championed the lowering of trade tariffs, free trade, and economic liberalisation.
• As per the US State Department, “During its first five years of operation, APEC established its core objectives.
• In the 1991 Seoul Declaration, APEC member economies proclaimed the creation of a liberalised free trade area around the Pacific Rim as the principle objective of the organisation.”
• The experts at the think tank Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), stated, “The dynamic growth attributable to APEC initiatives contributed significantly to the development of a growing middle class in the developing Asia-Pacific region.

Conclusion

India must independently pursue trade liberalization, excluding China to ease concerns. Multilateral coordination, more efficient than bilateral deals, is crucial. Empirical evidence emphasizes the clear positive impact of trade liberalization on Indian economic growth, surpassing other policy reforms. India's anxieties about trade openness may impede growth.

Engagement in institutions such as APEC and IPEF provides a platform for addressing and isolating these concerns. India's focused approach to trade liberalization is pivotal for navigating economic complexities and fostering meaningful international collaborations.

Why is it in the News?

• Mount Etna, Europe's tallest and most active volcano, erupted again on the island of Sicily on Sunday, November 12, 2023.
• The eruption sent a lava fountain into the air and ash miles into the sky.
• The ash fell on the nearby city of Catania, causing some disruption to air travel.

About Mount Etna:

• Mount Etna is a large stratovolcano on the eastern coast of Sicily, Italy.
• It is the highest and most active volcano in Europe, and one of the most active in the world.
• Its recorded volcanic activity dates back to 1500 B.C. Since then, it has erupted more than 200 times.
• Mount Etna is a complex volcanic system, made up of several different lava domes and craters.
• The summit crater, known as the Voragine, is a large depression that is often filled with lava.
• The volcano also has several calderas, which are large, sunken depressions that are formed by the collapse of the volcano's summit.
• In recent years, Mount Etna has become increasingly active, with several eruptions in the past decade. The most recent eruption began in 2022 and has produced a number of lava flows and ash clouds.
• The eruption has also caused a number of earthquakes, some of which have been felt in nearby towns and cities.

Other volcanoes erupt for much longer than Etna:

• One of the most famous long-term eruptions was the Kilauea volcano in Hawaii.
• Its spewing spree in 1983 continued — almost nonstop — for 35 years until 2018, only to start again in 2021. The eruption is still ongoing.
• Dukono in Indonesia started erupting in August 1933 and is still continuing.
• Santa Maria in Guatemala began erupting in June 1922 and continues to this day.
• Yasur in Vanuatu first rumbled to life in about 1270 (± 110 years) and as of June 2023, was still erupting.
• Lava domes: Lava domes are formations created by the slow extrusion of viscous lava, typically rhyolitic or andesitic, forming a steep-sided mound or dome-shaped structure near a volcano's vent.
• Crater: A volcanic crater is a bowl- or funnel-shaped depression that usually lies directly above the vent from which volcanic material is ejected.

What is a volcano?

• Volcanoes are openings, or vents where lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt onto the Earth’s surface.”
• Volcanoes can be on land and in the ocean.
• They are, in part, a result of their own eruptions but also the general formation of our planet, as tectonic plates move.
• Mountain ranges like the Andes in South America and the Rockies in North America, as well as volcanoes, formed through the movement and collision of tectonic plates.
• How do volcanoes erupt?
• Essentially, it’s a case of magma, or molten rock, below the surface of the Earth, bubbling up, rising, and overflowing, like boiling milk out of a pot on a stove.
• The magma finds its way to vents in the volcano and gets spewed across the land and into the atmosphere.
• When magma erupts from a volcano, it is called lava.
• There are four main types of volcanoes:
• Cinder cones
• Composite or stratovolcanoes
• Shield volcanoes and
• Lava domes
• Their type is determined by how the lava from an eruption flows and how that flow affects the volcano, and, as a result, how it affects its surrounding environment.
• Each volcano is unique and can vary in size and composition, but a crucial aspect of these mountains is the amount of silicon dioxide present in the magma and rocks below the surface.
• A high silica content can lead to violent eruptions that are categorized as explosive.
• Silica makes magma preventing it from readily flowing.
• Eruptions such as Alaska’s Novarupta in 1912 and Washington’s Mount St. Helens in 1980 all were composed of high amounts of silica.
• When silica values are low, eruptions are categorized as effusive with magma that is thinner and tends to be less explosive.

Types of Volcanoes:

• Cinder Cones: Cinder cones are considered to be the most common and simplest type of volcano in the world.
• Their structures are typically small, so their footprint doesn’t cover much terrain.
• Many are considered by volcanologists to be monogenetic and only erupt once during their lifespan.
• Once a cinder cone volcano becomes dormant, it usually never erupts again.
• Composite Volcanoes: Composite volcanoes are some of the largest and the most picturesque of any mountain in the world.
• Eruptions can be explosive and produce devastating impacts.
• Unlike a cinder volcano, composite volcanoes are usually active over a period of thousands of years.
• Mount St. Helens, Krakatoa, Mount Pinatubo, and Hunga-Tonga-Hunga-Ha’apai are all considered to be composite volcanoes, which also can be known as stratovolcanoes.
• The last significant composite volcano eruption was in Tonga in early 2022.
• Shield Volcanoes: This type of volcano is typically the largest on Earth and covers a broad swath of terrain.
• Hawaii’s Mauna Loa and K?lauea are classic examples of shield volcanoes and are among the most active in the world.
• Mauna Loa, from the sea floor base to its top elevation, is more than 33,000 feet tall.
• The great width of these volcanoes is a result of thin lava flows.
• Eruptions are not considered to be eruptive and usually rank low on the VEI.
• Threats from landslides and volcanic smog are usually significant with these types of volcanoes.
• Lava Domes: Lava dome features are usually quite small and due to thick magma, the lava doesn’t have wide impacts.
• These types of volcanoes can be explosive and are frequently found in the craters of composite volcanoes.
• Domes tend to grow from material that builds up over time by hardening lava from eruptions.
• Explosive eruptions can occur with little warning, which makes these features dangerous, if in the immediate area.

Volcanoes that are particularly active in the Pacific Ring of Fire:

• Some of the most active volcanoes are located in the Pacific Ring of Fire, which includes New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Japan, and the western coast of the Americas.
• About 90% of all earthquakes worldwide strike within this region.

Can scientists predict volcanic eruptions?

• Scientists are capable of predicting volcanic eruptions hours, or sometimes several days, in advance.
• This is not the case with earthquakes, which are much harder to predict.
• Scientists use seismographic data from earthquakes and other tremors, because those can be a precursor to volcanic eruptions.
• They monitor the ground for signs of deformation, which may be caused by the movement of magma.
• They also take readings of volcanic gas emissions, and changes in gravity and magnetic fields.

Why is it in the News?

The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, marks a noteworthy evolution in the environmental legal landscape of India, amending the pivotal Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980. Despite its substantial implications for forest conservation, the recent amendment has garnered limited attention and scant discussion concerning its potential impact on both forests and their inhabitants.

What is a community forest resource?

• The community forest resource area is the common forest land that has been traditionally protected and conserved for sustainable use by a particular community.
• The community uses it to access resources available within the traditional and customary boundary of the village; and for seasonal use of landscape in case of pastoralist communities.
• Each CFR area has a customary boundary with identifiable landmarks recognised by the community and its neighboring villages.
• It may include a forest of any category – revenue forest, classified & unclassified forest, deemed forest, DLC land, reserve forest, protected forest, sanctuary and national parks, etc.

What are Community Forest Resource rights?

• The Community Forest Resource Rights are mentioned under Section 3(1)(i) of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act.
• It is commonly referred to as the Forest Rights Act or the FRA.
• It provides for recognition of the right to “protect, regenerate or conserve or manage” the community forest resource.
• These rights allow the community to formulate rules for forest use by itself and others and thereby discharge its responsibilities under Section 5 of the FRA.
• CFR rights, along with Community Rights (CRs) under Sections 3(1)(b) and 3(1)(c), which include nistar rights and rights over non-timber forest products, ensure sustainable livelihoods of the community.
• (Nistar means the concession granted to agriculturists and Villagers for removal from forest coupes on payment at stipulated rates for specified forest produce for bonafide domestic use, but not for barter sale.)
• These rights give the authority to the Gram Sabha to adopt local traditional practices of forest conservation and management within the community forest resource boundary.

Why is the recognition of CFR rights important?

• Aimed at undoing the “historic injustice” meted out to forest-dependent communities due to curtailment of their customary rights over forests, the Forest Rights Act or the FRA came into force in 2008.
• It is important as it recognises the community’s right to use, manage and conserve forest resources, and to legally hold forest land that these communities have used for cultivation and residence.
• It also underlines the integral role that forest dwellers play in the sustainability of forests and the conservation of biodiversity.
• It is of greater significance inside protected forests like national parks, sanctuaries and tiger reserves as traditional dwellers then become a part of the management of the protected forests using their traditional wisdom.
• But while CFR rights are an important empowerment tool, getting a consensus amongst various villages about their traditional boundaries often proves a challenge.

Key Provisions of the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Bill, 2023:

• Land under the Act: The amended law exclusively applies to areas classified under the Forest Act, 1927, and those designated as such on or after October 25, 1980.
• Notably, it excludes forests converted for non-forest use after December 12, 1996.
• The amendments streamline the Act's application to recorded forest lands, private forest lands, plantations, etc.
• Exempted Categories of Land: To encourage afforestation and plantation outside forests, the Bill proposes exemptions, such as providing 0.10 ha of forest land for connectivity along roads and railways, allocating up to 10 ha for security-related infrastructure, and allowing up to 5 ha in Left Wing Extremism Affected Districts for public utility projects.
• Exemptions also cover strategic projects related to national security within 100 km of international borders.
• Leasing of Forest Land: The Act mandates prior approval from the central government for the assignment of forest land to any entity, whether government-controlled or not.
• This condition now applies to all entities, with approval subject to terms and conditions specified by the central government.
• Permitted Activities in Forest Land: Restrictions on de-reservation or non-forest use of forest land may be lifted with prior approval from the central government.
• The Act outlines specific activities exempt from non-forest purposes, including those related to the conservation, management, and development of forests and wildlife.
• Expansion of Delegated Legislation Power: The amendment broadens the Central Government's power for delegated legislation.
• In addition to making Rules, it now includes the authority to issue "directions" to central government authorities, state governments, union territories, or any recognized organization, entity, or body, ensuring effective implementation of the Act's provisions.

Key Concerns with the Amendment:

• Redefining Forests: The amendment introduces a contradiction to the established definition of forests by the Supreme Court in 1996.
• This change, making any tree patches recorded as forest in government records deemed as forests, jeopardizes legal safeguards for approximately one-fifth to one-fourth of India's forests, as reported by the Public Action Committee (PAC) in Punjab.
• Infrastructure Encroachment: The exemption of land near border areas for national security projects raises concerns about adverse effects on forest cover and wildlife in northeastern states.
• Broad exemptions for projects like zoos, eco-tourism facilities, and reconnaissance surveys may also negatively impact forest land and wildlife.
• Neglect of Tribal Rights: The amendment removes the requirement for prior consent from tribal grama sabhas for alterations to forests for non-forest purposes.
• Allowing private companies to use forest land for ecotourism could prioritize corporate interests over tribal communities' livelihoods, potentially leading to the erosion of local cultures and traditions due to mass tourism.
• Top-Down Authority: Concerns have been raised about potential forest exploitation by profit-driven private companies and the consolidation of power in the central government, potentially neglecting the concerns of state governments.
• This shift in authority could lead to imbalances and adverse consequences for forest management.
• Human-Animal Conflicts: Allowing infrastructure development on forest land without addressing the growing issue of human-animal conflicts in tribal hamlets poses threats to both livelihoods and wildlife.
• The amendment lacks provisions to mitigate or prevent such conflicts, potentially exacerbating the situation.

The Path Ahead:

• Empowerment of Local Communities: Empower local communities, especially tribal groups, by involving them in decision-making processes, recognizing traditional knowledge, and ensuring equitable benefits from forest resources.
• Reinforce legal safeguards to protect indigenous communities' rights and heritage.
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Strengthen the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process to comprehensively assess proposed projects' environmental impact.
• This ensures sustainable development while minimizing ecological damage and informs decision-makers.
• Stakeholder Consultation: Conduct extensive consultations with environmental experts, tribal communities, local stakeholders, and NGOs to address concerns and integrate diverse perspectives.
• Prioritize inclusiveness, local participation, and transparency in decision-making processes.
• Capacity Building: Invest in capacity building for relevant authorities to ensure effective implementation of the Act, adherence to guidelines, and competent decision-making.
• This enhances the capability of authorities to manage and regulate the Act efficiently.
• Transparency in Decision-Making: Ensure transparency in decision-making regarding forest land use, exemptions, and infrastructure projects to foster trust among stakeholders.
• Transparent processes enhance accountability and public trust.
• Periodic Review Mechanism: Establish a robust periodic review mechanism to evaluate the Act's impact on forests, biodiversity, and local communities.
• Adjustments should be made based on findings, considering feedback and evolving circumstances.
• Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Establish efficient conflict resolution mechanisms to address disputes arising from the Act.
• Provide a fair platform for all stakeholders to voice concerns and seek resolution, promoting constructive dialogue.
• Scientific Research and Monitoring: Promote scientific research to monitor the Act's impact on forest ecosystems, biodiversity, and climate goals.
• Use data-driven insights for informed policy adjustments and develop adaptive management strategies for unforeseen challenges.

These comprehensive steps collectively form a holistic approach to navigating the complexities of forest management, ensuring sustainability, equity, and the preservation of environmental integrity.

Why is it in the News?

The government recently announced that it had approved a new policy allowing its advertising wing, the Central Bureau of Communication (CBC), to undertake advertisement campaigns on social media, OTT platforms, and other digital media.

News Summary:

• The government has introduced a digital advertising policy, facilitating websites with a minimum of 2.5 lakh unique users per month, OTT platforms, and podcasts to participate in publicity campaigns.
• Released by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, the policy empowers the Central Bureau of Communication (CBC) to conduct digital media campaigns.
• The policy incorporates competitive bidding for rate discovery, ensuring transparency for three years.

Key Provisions of the Digital Advertisement Policy, 2023:

• Empowerment for Digital Campaigns: The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting has formally sanctioned the implementation of the "Digital Advertisement Policy, 2023." This landmark decision aims to empower the Central Bureau of Communication, facilitating the execution of comprehensive campaigns within the Digital Media Space.
• Mission Alignment with Evolving Media Landscape: In response to the dynamic changes in the media landscape, this policy marks a significant milestone in CBC's mission.
• It focuses on disseminating information and raising awareness about various government schemes, programs, and policies.
• Expansion into Digital Platforms: The policy extends CBC's reach into the realm of digital advertising by allowing the empanelment of agencies and organizations in the Over-The-Top (OTT) and Video on Demand Space.
• Leveraging Podcasts and Digital Audio: CBC can now capitalize on the growing number of listeners on Podcasts and Digital Audio platforms.
• Empanelment of Digital Audio platforms facilitates the dissemination of government messages to a broader audience.
• Mobile Application Outreach: For the first time, CBC has the capability to channelize public service campaign messages through Mobile Applications.
• This diversifies the channels through which government communication can reach the public.
• Streamlined Advertisement on Social Media: Recognizing the popularity of Social Media Platforms as channels for public conversations, the policy simplifies the process for CBC to place advertisements for government clients on these platforms.
• Enhanced Outreach with Digital Media Agencies: The policy empowers CBC to panel Digital Media Agencies, further expanding its outreach through various digital platforms.
• This enhances the ability to effectively communicate government initiatives.
• Embracing Innovation and Transparency: The policy acknowledges the dynamic nature of the digital landscape and allows CBC to onboard New and Innovative Communication Platforms within the Digital Space.
• The approval process involves a duly constituted committee.
• Competitive Bidding and Rate Discovery: An important aspect of the policy is the introduction of competitive bidding for rate discovery, ensuring transparency and efficiency in the selection of advertising rates.
• Rates discovered through this process remain valid for three years and are applicable to all eligible agencies.

Why is there a need for the Digital Advertisement Policy?

Digital advertising is the promotion of products and services via online platforms like streaming media, websites, and more. Digital advertisements are available in text, image, audio, and video formats.

• Impact of Digital India Initiative: The government's Digital India initiative has significantly increased the country's internet connectivity, leading to a substantial rise in the number of people engaged with online and social media platforms.
• Substantial Internet Penetration: Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) reports internet penetration in India surpassing 880 million as of March 2023, highlighting the extensive reach and potential of digital media.
• Consultative Policy Formation: The Digital Advertisement Policy 2023 has been formulated after extensive discussions involving various stakeholders, ensuring a comprehensive and inclusive approach to its design.
• Enhancing Citizen Outreach: This policy serves as a roadmap for amplifying the Government of India's digital outreach efforts, aiming to enhance information dissemination to its citizens, aligning with the evolving digital landscape.

About Central Bureau of Communication:

• Central Bureau of Communication (CBC) is a unit of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
• It has the mandate of providing 360 degrees communication solutions to Ministries, Departments, Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs), and autonomous bodies.
• It was set up in December 2017 by the integration of the erstwhile Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity (DAVP), Directorate of Field Publicity (DFP), and Song & Drama Division (S&DD).
• With 23 Regional Offices (ROs) and 148 Field Offices (FOs), CBC is engaged in the process of educating people, both rural and urban, about the Government’s policies and programmes to evoke their participation in developmental activities.
• As an advisory body to the government on media strategy, CBC aims to elevate the government's image as the key enabler of public empowerment, adapting policies to match the evolving media landscape.
• CBC comprises divisions such as the Advertising and Visual Communication Division, Folk Communication Division, and Field Communication Division, each employing different forms of communication—ranging from traditional media to live performances—to maximize outreach and understanding of government schemes among the populace.
• CBC orchestrates comprehensive and integrated communication campaigns that transcend singular advertising efforts, employing a diverse range of communication channels to disseminate information and engage with the public extensively.

Why is it in the News?

Speculation suggests that Israel's desire to control the Gaza Strip, including the elimination of Hamas, may be tied to a long-debated economic opportunity, the Ben Gurion Canal Project.

Historical Context: Ben Gurion Canal Project:

• This ambitious project aims to chart a course from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, echoing historic initiatives such as the Suez Canal, which has long been a pivotal maritime route since its completion in the 19th century.
• The proposed Ben Gurion Canal not only signals Israel’s aspirations to claim a stake in global trade dynamics but also reflects the ongoing quest to expand its geopolitical influence, a narrative that has been part of the region’s history since Israel’s establishment in 1948.

A Rivalry Revived

• The Ben Gurion Canal, if completed, would challenge the supremacy of the Suez Canal, potentially diverting commerce and reshaping economic currents.
• The strategic move can be seen as a continuation of the historical tensions that saw Israel and Egypt at odds during the Suez Crisis in 1956, where control over this critical passageway was a central issue.

About the Ben Gurion Canal Project:

• The Ben Gurion Canal Project, named after Israel’s founding father David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973), remains one of the most ambitious infrastructure projects ever planned on paper.
• It was first envisioned in the 1960s to create an alternative route to the Suez Canal, potentially enhancing economic prospects in the region.
• Estimated cost may exceed $100 billion.
• The idea is to cut a canal through the Israeli-controlled Negev Desert from the tip of the Gulf of Aqaba — the eastern arm of the Red Sea that juts into Israel’s southern tip and south-western Jordan — to the Eastern Mediterranean coast.

Historical Significance of Suez Canal:

• Upon its 1869 opening, the Suez Canal transformed global maritime trade.
• Linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas via the Isthmus of Suez, it facilitated direct ship passage between Europe and Asia, circumventing the need to navigate around the entirety of Africa.
• The canal significantly reduced the travel distance between London and Bombay (now Mumbai) by over 41 percent.
• During the 2022-23 fiscal year, approximately 26,000 vessels traversed the Suez Canal, contributing to nearly 13 percent of global shipping.

What are the Issues with the Suez Canal?

• The Suez Canal, stretching 193 km in length, 205 m in width, and 24 m in depth, stands as the world's largest shipping bottleneck.
• Despite being widened and deepened over the years, it remains perennially congested, with long queues at either end.
• In March 2021, the mammoth cargo ship Ever Given got stuck in the canal, blocking passage for more than a week.
• It was estimated that the resulting “traffic jam” held up an estimated $ 9.6 billion of goods every day.
• Also, Egypt’s control over the waterway has been a source of conflict for almost 70 years now.
• In 1956, after President Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-70) decided to nationalise the canal, war broke out, with the UK, France, and Israel attacking Egypt in order to regain control.
• The Suez Crisis ended in a military victory for the aggressors but an overwhelming political victory for Egypt, which kept control over the canal, which was shut for more than six months due to the conflict.
• This was also a pivotal moment in the Cold War, with Soviet threats of intervention key to stopping the allied aggression against Egypt.
• The Suez Canal was also the focal point of both the 1967 and 1973 Arab-Israeli wars, and was shut from 1967-75.
• However, the canal holds immense significance for Egypt's economy.
• The Suez Canal Authority collects all toll revenue generated, along with the local economic advantages it provides.
• In the 2022-23 fiscal year, toll revenues reached a record $9.4 billion for Egypt's Suez Canal Authority, contributing to almost 2 percent of Egypt's GDP, which stood at $476.8 billion, as per the World Bank.

Thus, for the West, a shipping lane through Israel would be ideal:

• The idea of a new shipping route through Israel has long interested the West.
• A declassified 1963 US government memo proposed using nuclear explosives to create a 160-mile sea-level canal across Israel, connecting the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Aqaba.
• This alternative to the Suez Canal was seen as strategically important and potentially beneficial for regional economic development.

What is preventing Israel from constructing the canal?

• Cost and Complexity: One of the primary obstacles was the immense cost and complexity of such an endeavor.
• Estimates suggested a price tag of up to $100 billion, significantly higher than the potential cost of widening the existing Suez Canal to address its traffic issues.
• Consideration of Nuclear Excavation: Due to the high cost of conventional excavation, planners explored the controversial concept of using nuclear explosives for construction, as indicated in a declassified 1963 US government memorandum.
• Of course, this is also a very dangerous choice due to the possibility of radioactive fallout.
• Geographical Limitations: The proposed route faced challenges due to the topography and terrain, resulting in a planned canal that was over 100 kilometers longer than the Suez Canal.
• Economic Viability and Preference for Shorter Routes: Even if the project were to be realized, concerns existed about the economic viability as many ships might continue to favor the shorter, established route via the Suez Canal.
• Geopolitical Challenges: The region's ongoing military threats, including the constant risk from conflicts and attacks, presented significant concerns for the feasibility and security of a canal carrying billions of dollars in freight daily.

Why is it in the News?

The Ethics Committee of Lok Sabha, which inquired into the cash-for-query allegations leveled by BJP MP Nishikant Dubey against TMC MP Mahua Moitra, adopted its draft report Thursday, recommending her expulsion from the 17th Lok Sabha for “unethical conduct” and “serious misdemeanors.”

Cash-for-Query (Mahua Moitra) News Summary:

• The report recommending Moitra's expulsion was labeled 'prejudiced and incorrect' by 4 opposition panel members.
• They accused the Ethics Committee chairman and BJP members of breaching rules by leaking panel proceedings.
• Next Steps: Former Lok Sabha Secretary General P. D. T. Achary states that the speaker now holds the authority to decide whether the report will be made public.
• In the upcoming parliamentary session, the committee's chairperson will present the report, sparking a debate and a subsequent vote on the member's expulsion.
• This event could mark a historic moment as it might be the first time the Lok Sabha Ethics Committee suggests an MP's expulsion.
• A prior 'cash-for-query' case in 2005 saw 11 MPs facing expulsion, but it was the Rajya Sabha Ethics Committee and a Lok Sabha Inquiry Committee that proposed those expulsions.

The 2005 Cash-for-Query Scandal:

• Back in 2005, a hidden camera sting operation exposed the involvement of 11 Members of Parliament who were allegedly willing to use their positions to promote a company and ask questions in the House in exchange for money.
• As a result of the parliamentary committee's investigations, 10 Members of Lok Sabha faced expulsion from the lower house.
• Furthermore, the Rajya Sabha conducted its own inquiry through the Ethics Committee, leading to the expulsion of 1 of its members.
• In 2007, the Supreme Court upheld these expulsions, asserting that the authority to expel members was within the privileges and immunities of Parliament.
• This landmark decision was made in the case of Raja Ram Pal v/s The Hon'Ble Speaker.

About the Lok Sabha’s Ethics Committee:

• Committee Formation:
• The Speaker appoints members to the Ethics Committee for a one-year term.
• This 15-member Committee is responsible for investigating complaints about unethical behavior by Lok Sabha Members referred by the Speaker, offering recommendations accordingly.
• Historical Insight:
• The concept of ethics panels for both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha was first discussed at a 1996 conference in Delhi.
• Vice President K. R. Narayanan established the Rajya Sabha's Ethics Committee in 1997 to oversee moral conduct and examine misconduct cases.
• The idea for a Lok Sabha Ethics Committee emerged in 1997 but was officially recommended during the 13th Lok Sabha by the Committee of Privileges.
• An ad hoc Ethics Committee was formed in 2000 by the late Speaker G. M. C. Balayogi, eventually becoming a permanent House fixture in 2015.
• Handling Complaints:
• Anyone, through a Lok Sabha MP, can file a complaint against a Member, supported by evidence and a statement verifying the complaint's validity.
• The Committee also considers self-complaints by Members without the need for an affidavit.
• The Speaker refers complaints against MPs to the Committee after a preliminary inquiry.
• Function and Scope:
• The Committee examines complaints but does not entertain those solely based on media reports or matters under legal consideration.
• It presents its findings to the Speaker, seeking approval for the report's consideration.
• There's provision for a brief discussion on the report in the House.

Ethics Committee vs. Privileges Committee: A Comparison

• Overlap in Responsibilities: The roles of the Ethics Committee and the Privileges Committee often coincide, leading to some shared functions.
• The regulations, such as those outlined in the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in the Lok Sabha, that are applicable to the Committee of Privileges also extend to the Ethics Committee.
• Handling Allegations: When an allegation of corruption involving an MP arises, it can be directed to either committee. Typically, more severe accusations are referred to the Privileges Committee.
• Privileges Committee's Mandate: The primary role of the Privileges Committee is to protect the "freedom, authority, and dignity of Parliament."
• These privileges apply to individual Members as well as the entire House, ensuring their collective and individual dignity and authority.
• Breach of Privilege: MPs can be investigated for breaching privilege, and individuals who are not MPs can also face allegations of breaching privilege for actions that challenge the authority and dignity of the House.
• Ethics Committee's Focus: In contrast, the Ethics Committee's main responsibility is addressing cases of misconduct involving Members of Parliament only.

What Lies Ahead?

The time taken by a Committee depends on the complexity of the case it's handling. However, the Committee lacks the authority to refer cases to investigative agencies like the CBI or the Police. It also doesn't possess executive powers to directly penalize a Member.

Instead, the Committee can recommend the suspension of a Member for a defined period. These recommendations are then presented to the House for approval or rejection, including the suggested punishment. In the event of claims related to unconstitutionality, gross illegality, or denial of natural justice, a Member has the option to challenge the decision in a court of law.

Why is it in the News?

According to the Global TB Report 2023 by the World Health Organisation, India had the highest number of Tuberculosis (TB) cases in the world in 2022.

What is the Global Tuberculosis Report?

• The Global Tuberculosis Report published by the World Health Organisation (WHO).
• It provides a comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of the TB epidemic and progress in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease at global, regional, and country levels.
• This is done in the context of global TB commitments, strategies, and targets.
• This report is based primarily on data gathered by WHO from national ministries of health in annual rounds of data collection.

Key Findings of the Global Tuberculosis Report 2023?

• India had the highest number of Tuberculosis (TB) cases in the world in 2022.
• The country accounted for 27 percent of the total TB cases in the world.
• The report revealed that 30 nations accounted for 87 percent of the world's TB cases. 
• India was followed by Indonesia (10 per cent), China (7.1 per cent), the Philippines (7.0 per cent), Pakistan (5.7 per cent), Nigeria (4.5 per cent), Bangladesh (3.6 per cent), and the Democratic Republic of Congo (3.0 per cent).
• In the Case of the Fatality Ratio (the measure of how severe a disease is), India stood at 12 percent, which means 12 out of 100 patients died of the disease.
• Singapore had the lowest score of 1 percent while China stood at the 14th spot with 4 percent.
• While TB is curable, death can occur when it is diagnosed late.
• The report also highlights a recovery trend in TB diagnosis and treatment services in 2022, signaling a potential reversal of the COVID-19 impact on TB control efforts. 

What is Tuberculosis (TB)?

• Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease primarily caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• It mainly affects the lungs but can also impact other parts of the body such as the pleura (lining around the lungs), lymph nodes, intestines, spine, and brain.
• Transmission:
• TB spreads through the air when an infected person with active TB disease coughs, sneezes, or even talks.
• The bacteria can travel through the air and be inhaled by people who are nearby.
• Symptoms:
• Common symptoms include a persistent cough lasting three weeks or more, chest pain, unintentional weight loss, fatigue, and fever.
• The symptoms may develop gradually, making early detection crucial.
• Treatment for TB:
• TB is treated with a course of antibiotics, typically lasting six to nine months.
• It's crucial to complete the full course to ensure the bacteria are completely eradicated and to prevent drug resistance.
• Prevention:
• Prevention involves vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, particularly in regions with high TB prevalence.
• Avoiding close contact with infected individuals helps prevent transmission.
• Drug-resistant TB:
• Drug-resistant TB occurs when the TB bacteria in a person's body don't respond to, or are resistant to, one or more of the primary TB drugs.
• There are two main categories of drug-resistant TB:
• MDR (multidrug-resistant) TB and
• XDR (extensively drug-resistant) TB.
• MDR TB is characterized by bacteria resistant to at least two vital TB drugs, isoniazid and rifampicin. These drugs are among the most effective in treating TB.
• On the other hand, XDR TB takes resistance a step further. In addition to being resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin, XDR TB strains are also resistant to any fluoroquinolone and at least one of three injectable second-line drugs: amikacin, kanamycin, or capreomycin.
• This makes XDR TB more challenging to treat, as it doesn't respond to a broader range of medications commonly used against TB.
• The World Health Organization's END TB Strategy, initiated in 2014, sets a goal to globally eradicate the TB epidemic by 2035.
• The strategy targets a 95% reduction in TB-related deaths compared to 2015, a 90% decrease in TB incidence rates by 2035 compared to 2015, and the ambitious aim of ensuring that no families face catastrophic costs due to TB by the year 2035.

Global Initiatives to Combat Tuberculosis:

• The World Health Organization (WHO), in collaboration with the Global Fund and Stop TB Partnership, has introduced the joint initiative "Find. Treat. All. #EndTB."
• The release of the Global Tuberculosis Report by WHO serves as a crucial tool in assessing and addressing the global TB situation.

Initiative by Government of India to Tackle Tuberculosis:

• National TB Elimination Programme: Prioritizing TB elimination by allocating additional resources under the National Health Mission, intensifying efforts towards achieving the goal of a TB-free India.
• Ayushman Bharat Digital Health Mission: It emphasizes the integration of technology by introducing digital health IDs for TB patients.
• This initiative aims to guarantee the availability of accurate diagnostics and appropriate treatment through digital means.
• Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan: It's an initiative of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) to accelerate the country’s progress towards TB elimination by 2025.
• Ni-kshay Poshan Yojana: It provides Rs 500 support through direct benefit transfer to eligible patients.
• Currently, two vaccines VPM (Vaccine Projekt Management) 1002 and MIP (Mycobacterium Indicus Pranii) have been developed and identified for TB, and are under Phase-3 clinical trial.

Way Forward

• Specialized Active Case Finding Drives: Launch targeted campaigns to actively identify and diagnose TB cases in specific populations.
• Scaling Up of Molecular Diagnostics to Block Levels: Expanding the use of molecular diagnostic techniques to the grassroots level for efficient and accurate TB detection.
• Decentralization of Screening Services through Ayushman Bharat Health & Wellness Centres: Extending screening services to local health and wellness centers under the Ayushman Bharat initiative, making TB detection more accessible.
• Private Sector Engagement: Collaborating with the private sector to enhance TB case identification and treatment.
• Newer Patient-Centric Initiatives: Introducing innovative models like the Family Caregiver Model and Differentiated Care to reduce mortality and improve treatment success rates.

Why is it in the News?

Rising pollution levels in north India have led to focus returning on the Air Quality Index (AQI) score, a measure of air pollution.

Context:

• The escalating pollution in northern India has once again drawn attention to the Air Quality Index (AQI) score, which gauges air pollution levels.
• On Monday, Delhi, for instance, registered an AQI score exceeding 400.
• This categorizes the air quality as 'severe,' with any reading above 100 indicating at least a moderate level of pollution on the index.

What is the Air Quality Index (AQI)?

• AQI is a number, which is a measure of air quality.
• The higher the AQI, the worse the air.
• The color-coded AQI index was launched in India in 2014, and it helps the public and the government understand the condition of the air and what subsequent measures are to be taken to combat the situation, based on its severity.
• According to the Central Pollution Control Board, part of the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change, the AQI transforms complex air quality data of various pollutants into a single number (index value), nomenclature, and color.
• The pollutants measured include PM 10, PM 2.5, Nitrogen Dioxide, Ozone, Carbon, etc.
• There are six categories of AQI, namely ‘Good’ (0-50), ‘Satisfactory’ (51-100), ‘Moderately polluted’ (101-200), ‘Poor’ (201-300), ‘Very Poor’ (301-400), and ‘Severe’ (401-500).

How Pollutants Impact Our Health?

PM 10 and PM 2.5

• These are extremely fine particulate matter (PM) particles, with the digits accompanying them referring to their diameter.
• So, PM 10 and PM 2.5 are smaller than 10 and 2.5 microns in their diameter, respectively.
• One micron is about a thousandth of a millimeter and this tiny size has a role to play in how they impact human health.
• The finer the particles are, the more difficult it gets to protect oneself from them.
• Due to their size, the PM 2.5 particles can easily bypass the nose and throat and can enter the circulatory system.
• The particles can also lead to chronic diseases such as asthma, heart attack, bronchitis, and other respiratory problems.
• Byproducts of emissions from factories, vehicular pollution, construction activities, and road dust, such particles are not dispersed and stay suspended in the air that we breathe.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gets in the air from the burning of fuel, with sources including emissions from vehicles and power plants.
• Short-term exposure to high levels of NO2 can aggravate respiratory diseases like asthma, and lead to other problems such as coughing or difficulty in breathing.
• Long-term exposure may also contribute to the development of asthma and could increase susceptibility to respiratory infections.

Ozone (O3)

• Ozone is a gas that is present in the upper layers of the atmosphere, protecting human health from the impact of the Sun’s UV rays.
• However, surface-level ozone is among the most significant air pollutants. It is formed by the reaction of atmospheric pollutants in the presence of sunlight.
• According to the International Journal of Medical Public Health, with the increase in surface ozone levels, there is a likelihood of an increase in the risk of hospital admissions for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) and the number of cardiovascular and respiratory deaths.

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

• The largest source of SO2 in the atmosphere is the burning of fossil fuels by power plants and other industrial facilities.
• Additional sources are industrial processes and natural sources such as volcanoes.
• As with other gases, SO2 exposure is harmful to the cardiovascular system and can lead to the development of respiratory illnesses.
• SO2 can also react with other compounds to form particulate matter.
• At high concentrations, gaseous SOx can harm trees and plants by damaging foliage and decreasing growth.

Ammonia (NH3)

• A 2017 NASA-funded study said that in India, “A broad increase in fertilizer use coupled with large contributions from livestock waste have resulted in the world’s highest concentrations of atmospheric ammonia.”
• While gaseous ammonia is a natural part of Earth’s nitrogen cycle, excess ammonia is harmful to plants and reduces air and water quality.
• In the troposphere –where all weather takes place and where people live – ammonia gas reacts with nitric and sulfuric acids to form nitrate-containing particles.
• Those particles contribute to aerosol pollution that is damaging to human health.
• Ammonia gas can also fall back to Earth and enter lakes, streams, and oceans, where it contributes to harmful algal blooms and “dead zones” with dangerously low oxygen levels.

Lead (Pb)

• Lead is a naturally occurring toxic metal found in the Earth’s crust. But in increased quantities, exposure to it becomes extremely dangerous to health.
• Important sources of environmental contamination come from mining, smelting, manufacturing and even recycling activities.
• Young children are particularly vulnerable to lead poisoning because they absorb four to five times as much ingested lead as adults from a given source.
• Children who survive severe lead poisoning may be left with permanent intellectual disability and behavioral disorders.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• A toxic, colorless, and odorless gas, it is given off when fuel containing carbon, such as wood, coal, and petrol, is burned.
• If CO levels are high enough, a person may become unconscious and die. Long-term exposure has been linked with an increased risk of heart disease.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Punjab have approached the Supreme Court to decide a time frame for which Governors have to either return or grant assent to Bills passed by Legislatures

News Summary:

• Punjab government led by Aam Aadmi Party had filed a petition in the Supreme Court, challenging the delay by Governor Banwarilal Purohit in giving assent to the bills passed by the State assemblies or proposed to be tabled by them.
• The recent feud between Purohit and Chief Minister Bhagwant Mann-led government pertains to three money bills that were proposed to be tabled by the State during a Special Session of the fourth Budget Session on October 20.
• The governor's approval is needed to table money bills in the House.
• Tamil Nadu has also accused Governor R.N. Ravi of toying with the citizens’ mandate by sitting on the Bills by neither assenting nor returning them.
• It said the Governor has positioned himself as a “political rival” who has caused a “constitutional deadlock” by simply sitting on the Bills for months together.
• Kerala, in its separate petition, said that eight proposed laws passed by its Legislative Assembly were pending with the Governor, not for months, but years.
• Of the eight, three Bills were waiting for the Governor’s word for over two years.

Observation by the Supreme Court:

• The Supreme Court on Monday expressed acute displeasure at Governors holding back key Bills, especially in Opposition-ruled States such as Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Telangana, until State governments approach the top court for judicial intervention.
• The court also questioned the Assembly’s action to reconvene three months after the Vidhan Sabha was adjourned sine die in March.
• “The Assembly was summoned on March 3 and adjourned sine die, without being prorogued, on March 22. The Speaker then reconvenes the Assembly three months later!
• The Supreme Court also said that Governors must remember that they are not the elected representatives of states and have limited power over the legislative actions of an elected government.

The process of granting assent:

• Article 200 of the Constitution covers the options before the Governor when a Bill passed by both Houses of the Legislature is presented to him.
• The first proviso to the Article says the Governor could either declare his assent to the Bill or withhold the assent if it is not a Money Bill or reserve the law for the consideration of the President if he thinks the Bill derogates from or endangers the power of judicial review of the High Court.
• In case the Governor chooses to withhold assent, he should return the Bill “as soon as possible” with a message requesting the Legislative Assembly to reconsider the proposed law or any specified provisions or suggest amendments.
• The Assembly would reconsider and pass the Bill, and this time, the Governor should not withhold his assent.
• In short, the constitutional head of the State would bow to the considered decision of the elected representatives of the people.

Do Governors have discretion?

• Governors did have the discretion to return Bills before the first proviso in the draft Article 175 (now Article 200).
• This was amended by the Constituent Assembly in 1949.
• Though it was thought that the Governor’s exercise of discretion would act as a “potential check on disruptive legislative tendencies” by States, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, while introducing the amended proviso, said, “in a responsible government there can be no room for the Governor acting on discretion”.
• T. T. Krishnamachari, a Constituent Assembly member from Madras and later Finance Minister, approved of the amendment, saying “The Governor cannot act on his own, he can only act on the advice of the Ministry.
• When a Governor sends a Bill back for further consideration, he does so expressly on the advice of his Council of Ministers”.
• Mr. Krishnamachari explained that if the Bill passed by the Legislative Assembly needs modification or has garnered adverse public opinion, the government uses the Governor to return the Bill to the Lower House as quickly as possible for re-legislation.
• The first proviso to Article 200 is thus a “saving clause” and retains the discretion over the fate of the Bill solely in the hands of the State Cabinet.
• Article 163 of the Constitution makes it clear the Governor is not expected to act independently.
• The Supreme Court in the Shamsher Singh case verdict has held that as a formal head of the State, a “Governor exercises all his powers and functions conferred on him by or under the Constitution on the aid and advice of his Council of Ministers save in spheres where the Governor is required by or under the Constitution to exercise his functions in his discretion.”
• The assent or return of the Bill does not involve the discretion of individuals occupying the Governor’s post.

By when should Bills be returned?

• The first proviso of Article 200 says it should be “as soon as possible”.
• The Constitution is silent on what exactly this phrase means.
• The Supreme Court has interpreted “as soon as possible” in the proviso to mean “as early as practicable without avoidable delay” in its 1972 judgment in Durga Pada Ghosh versus the State of West Bengal.
• Justice (now retired) Rohinton F. Nariman, in his 2020 judgment in the Keisham Megha Chandra Singh case, said a ‘reasonable time’ would mean three months.
• The States have urged the court to interpret the phrase in the proviso and fix a time limit by which Governors should assent or return a Bill.
• The 1988 Sarkaria Commission report on Centre-State relations had suggested consultation with the Governor while drafting the Bill and fixing a deadline for its disposal.

What Efforts Have Been Made to Address Concerns Regarding Governors' Alleged Partisan Role?

• Proposal by Sarkaria Commission: The Sarkaria Commission, set up in 1983 to look into Centre-state relations, proposed that the Vice President of India and the Speaker of Lok Sabha should be consulted by the Prime Minister in the selection of Governors.
• National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2000): The Commission recommended significant changes in the selection of Governors.
• The Commission suggested that the “Governor of a State should be appointed by the President, after consultation with the Chief Minister of that State”.
• Punchhi Committee Proposal: The Justice Madan Mohan Punchhi Committee, constituted in 2007 on Centre-state relations.
• The committee proposed in its report that a committee comprising the Prime Minister, Home Minister, Vice President, Speaker, and the concerned Chief Minister should choose the Governor.
• The Punchhi Committee recommended deleting the “Doctrine of Pleasure” from the Constitution but backed the right of the Governor to sanction the prosecution of ministers against the advice of the state government.
• It also argued for a provision for impeachment of the Governor by the state legislature.

The Way Forward

• While Governors may hold differing views on the content of a Bill and have constitutional options at their disposal, they should refrain from using their authority to obstruct legislation they personally disagree with.
• It's essential to put into practice the principle recommended by the Punchhi Commission, which assessed Centre-State relations and proposed that Governors should not be burdened with the role of Chancellors.
• Governors sometimes appear to have an overly elevated perception of their constitutional roles. Their primary duty is to uphold the Constitution and, if necessary, advise elected governments to align with its provisions. However, this responsibility does not grant them the authority to operate as an independent power center by exploiting the absence of a specific time frame for decision-making and their discretionary powers.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said that the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana, the Centre’s free ration scheme that aids 80 crore poor, will be extended for five more years.

News Summary

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi, announced the extension of the free foodgrain provision under the National Food Security Act, 2013 for the next five years.
• The PM Garib Kalyan Ann Yojana (PMGKAY) scheme, which was originally set to end in December 2023, will now continue.
• This scheme was introduced in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic to provide free food grains to beneficiaries under the National Food Security Act, 2013.

What is Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Ann/Anna Yojana (PM-GKAY)?

• The Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) was launched in April 2020 as a part of the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative to help the poor people whose livelihoods were shuttered by a countrywide lockdown aimed at containing the spread of the Covid-19.
• It was a part of Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Package (PMGKP) to help the poor fight the battle against Covid-19.
• Under this scheme, about 80 crore beneficiaries covered under the National Food Security Act (NFSA) get free 5 kg foodgrains per person per month.
• This assistance is in addition to the subsidised ration provided under the National Food Security Act (NFSA), allowing families covered under the Public Distribution System (PDS) to access essential food items at a nominal cost ranging from Rs 1 to Rs 3 per kilogram.
• Objective of PM-GKAY: To feed India's poorest citizens by distributing food grain to all priority households—those with ration cards and those designated by the Antyodaya Anna Yojana scheme—through the Public Distribution System.
• The Antyodaya Anna Yojana is a centrally sponsored scheme that was introduced in 2000 with the goal of giving millions of the poorest households access to heavily subsidized food.
• To ensure the availability of protein, 1 kg of pulses were provided to families (as per regional preferences)
• Implementing Agency: Department of Food and Public Distribution, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.

Who is eligible for the scheme?

• Families eligible for PM-GKAY include those under the Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) and Priority Household (PHH) categories.
• PHH beneficiaries are identified by state governments and Union territory administrations based on their specific criteria.
• This ensures that households in most need receive the necessary support.
• AAY families, comprising widows, terminally ill persons, disabled individuals, elderly individuals without means of subsistence or societal support, primitive tribal households, and various vulnerable categories, are also eligible for the scheme.

The merger of PMGKAY and NFSA:

• In January 2023, the government approved the integration of PM-GKAY benefits with the provisions of the NFSA Act.
• This integration will streamline the delivery of free food grains.
• It also ensures that families falling under the Antyodaya Ann Yojana (AAY) and priority households (PHH) categories receive free food grains according to their entitlement under NFSA.
• For the financial year 2023-24, the central government has allocated around 60 mt of food grain under the NFSA.
• This includes around 40 mt of rice, 19 mt of wheat, and 1 mt of coarse grains.
• The central issue price (CIP), the rate at which grains are made available to NFSA beneficiaries, is Rs 3 per kg for rice, Rs 2 per kg for wheat, and Rs 1 per kg for coarse cereals.

Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Package (PMGKP) vs PMGKAY:

• The Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Package (PMGKP) was introduced in the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic to provide economic relief to the vulnerable sections of society.
• Launched in March 2020, the scheme included various measures such as free food grains, cash transfers, and insurance coverage for healthcare workers, among others, to support those affected by the pandemic and the subsequent lockdown measures.
• The insurance scheme under PMGKP covered Rs 50 lakh per health worker fighting Covid-19.
• This insurance scheme was further extended by 180 days in April 2022.

What is National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013?

• The National Food Security Act (NFSA) was notified on 10th September, 2013.
• The objective of this scheme was to provide for food and nutritional security in the human life cycle approach, by ensuring access to adequate quantities of quality food at affordable prices for people to live a life with dignity.
• Coverage: 75% of the rural population and up to 50% of the urban population for receive subsidized food grains under the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS).
• Overall, NFSA caters to 67% of the total population.
• State governments are tasked with identifying Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY - poorest of the poor) and priority households (PHH) beneficiaries within the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS)-covered population.
• Provisions: 5 Kg of foodgrains per person per month at Rs. 3/2/1 per Kg for rice/wheat/coarse grains.
• The existing AAY household will continue to receive 35 Kg of foodgrains per household per month.
• Meal and maternity benefits of not less than Rs. 6,000 to pregnant women and lactating mothers during pregnancy and six months after childbirth.
• Meals for children up to 14 years of age.
• Food security allowance to beneficiaries in case of non-supply of entitled foodgrains or meals.
• Setting up of grievance redressal mechanisms at the district and state levels.

What are the Challenges and the Issues?

• Inadequate Coverage: The National Food Security Act relies on data from the last census in 2011, leaving out a growing number of food-insecure individuals who have emerged since then.
• Financial Burden: Sustaining the program imposes a significant financial burden on the government, necessitating a continuous supply of affordable grains.
• In 2022, India had to impose restrictions on wheat and rice exports due to unpredictable weather conditions affecting harvests, adding pressure to food prices and unsettling global agricultural markets.
• Fiscal Deficit Concerns: The extension of the program could potentially jeopardize the government's goal of further reducing the fiscal deficit to 6.4% of the gross domestic product.
• Impact on Inflation: The program's continuation may also influence inflation rates, particularly in the case of rice and wheat, which contribute around 10% to India's retail inflation.
• Decreased production caused by factors like heatwaves and irregular monsoons has led to rising prices for these essential food items.

Why is it in the News?

The air quality in Delhi-NCR declined over the past week due to a gradual drop in temperatures, calm winds that trap pollution, and a surge in post-harvest paddy straw burning across Punjab and Haryana.

Context:

• The air quality in Delhi has plummeted to hit the ‘severe’ category for the first time this season, with the AQI breaching the 450 mark according to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
• The State government implemented restrictions, including banning construction and demolition activities.
• Over the last few years, Delhi and its surrounding areas have been subject to hazardous smog, which conincides with the winter months rolling in.
• Smoke from farmers burning crop stubble, vehicle exhaust and factory emissions combine every winter to blanket the region in a toxic haze.

What is Pollution?

• Pollution refers to the contamination of the earth's environment with materials that interfere with human health, quality of life or the natural functioning of the ecosystems.
• The major forms of pollution include water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution and soil contamination.
• Other less-recognised forms include thermal pollution and radioactive hazards.

What are the Reasons behind Rising Air Pollution in Delhi?

• Delhi is one of the most polluted capital cities in the world for a variety of factors, including location (landlocked city), traffic patterns, dust, and farm fires.
• However, weather also has a significant impact.
• Typically, Delhi experiences deteriorating air quality from October to November, with improvements occurring from March to April.
• Unlike the winter season, the current weather conditions are not unfavorable.
• During winter, cool and calm weather tends to trap and intensify daily pollution, especially in northern India within the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
• In addition to local emissions, the decline in air quality is primarily attributed to an increase in fire incidents, largely resulting from the burning of wheat crop stubble in northern India especially Punjab and Haryana.
• Air Pollution in Delhi-NCR and the Indo-Gangetic Plains is a complex issue influenced by a variety of factors.
• Location: Delhi is a landlocked city compared to Mumbai and Kolkata so the level of pollution is more as the level of particulate matter and pollutants is not able to get discharged into the surrounding areas.
• Wind Direction: In October, the monsoons withdraw from Northwest India, bringing northwesterly winds.
• During summers, northwesterly winds transport dust from northern Pakistan and Afghanistan.
• Reduced Wind Speed: Winters see lower wind speeds compared to summers, making the region more susceptible to pollution.
• Delhi's landlocked position doesn't benefit from the sea breeze that disperses pollutants in other parts of the country.
• Stubble Burning: Burning crop stubble in states like Punjab, Rajasthan, and Haryana adds to the winter smog.
• This practice releases harmful gases like methane, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
• Vehicular Pollution: Vehicular emissions significantly contribute to declining air quality in Delhi during winter, accounting for about 20% of the problem.
• Dust Storms: Dust storms from Gulf countries worsen the existing pollution levels.
• Dry and cold weather results in dusty conditions from October to June, contributing to PM10 and PM2.5 pollutants.
• Temperature Drop: Lower temperatures reduce the inversion height, concentrating pollutants in the lower atmosphere.
• The inversion height is the layer beyond which pollutants cannot disperse upward.
• Firecrackers: Despite bans on firecracker sales, Diwali celebrations with fireworks contribute to air pollution.
• Construction Activities and Open Waste Burning: Large-scale construction projects in Delhi-NCR increase dust and pollution.
• Landfill sites and open waste burning also add to air pollution concerns.

Impact of Air Pollution on health:

• Respiratory Issues: Air pollution is a major cause of respiratory problems, including asthma, bronchitis, and lung infections.
• It can exacerbate existing conditions and increase the risk of developing them.
• Cardiovascular Diseases: Poor air quality is linked to heart problems, including heart attacks and stroke, as it can lead to the buildup of plaque in blood vessels and raise blood pressure.
• Cancer Risk: Long-term exposure to certain air pollutants is associated with an increased risk of lung and other types of cancer.
• Neurological Effects: Emerging research suggests that air pollution may have adverse effects on the central nervous system and could be linked to cognitive decline and mental health issues.
• Reduced Life Expectancy: Prolonged exposure to air pollution is associated with a shortened life expectancy, as it contributes to a range of health problems that can be life-threatening.

Impact of Air Pollution on Economic Growth:

• Healthcare Costs: Air pollution increases medical expenses due to illnesses, reducing economic growth.
• Lower Productivity: Poor air quality impairs worker productivity, hampering economic output.
• Tourism and Investment: Severe pollution deters tourists and investors, affecting local economies.
• Agricultural Losses: Air pollution harms crops, impacting food production and livelihoods.
• Environmental Cleanup Costs: Funds spent on pollution control divert resources from productive sectors, hindering economic growth.

What Steps Should Be Taken to Address Pollution in Delhi?

• Congestion Charge: Introducing a congestion charge for private vehicles during peak hours can alleviate traffic congestion and promote public transport or carpooling.
• Revenue generated from this charge can support green projects or subsidize electric vehicles, encouraging eco-friendly choices.
• Cap-and-Trade for Industrial Emissions: Implementing a cap-and-trade system sets emission limits for industries, fostering a market-driven approach to pollution reduction.
• This incentivizes industries to lower emissions and invest in cleaner technologies, ultimately reducing pollution.
• Drones for Pollution Control: Utilizing drones to detect and mitigate pollution hotspots is a proactive measure for managing air quality.
• Drones provide real-time air quality data with high resolution, allowing for public accessibility and targeted intervention.
• Vertical Gardens: Incorporating vertical gardens in urban areas enhances aesthetics and air quality.
• They absorb carbon dioxide, release oxygen, and create habitats for wildlife, contributing to urban biodiversity.
• Rewards for Low-Carbon Lifestyles: Promoting low-carbon living through a rewards system, such as points, vouchers, or tax benefits for eco-friendly choices like public transport or carpooling, encourages environmentally conscious behavior, reducing carbon footprints.

Government Measures to Combat Pollution in Delhi:

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Aims to reduce PM10 and PM2.5 particles by at least 20% by 2024 compared to 2017 levels.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): As per a Supreme Court order, GRAP outlines actions based on different Air Quality Index categories, addressing air quality in Delhi and the National Capital Region.
• Stubble Burning Mitigation: Various short-term solutions, both in-situ and ex-situ, have been introduced to address crop stubble burning, such as Subsidy to farmers for Turbo happy seeders and bio-decomposers.
• Turbo Happy Seeder (THS) is a machine mounted on a tractor that cuts and uproots the stubble, in order to reduce stubble burning.
• Mobile Enforcement Teams: Enforce regulations against vehicular pollution, complemented by public awareness campaigns and investments in mass rapid transport systems. Phasing out old commercial vehicles is also underway.
• Cleaner Transport: The introduction of BS-VI vehicles, push for electric vehicles (EVs), Odd-Even as an emergency measure and construction of the Eastern and Western Peripheral Expressways to reduce vehicular pollution.
• Improved Farming Practices: Encouraging better disposal of crop residue and exploring cost-effective solutions, like chemical decomposition by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, are essential for tackling stubble burning.
• "Green War Room": This initiative uses satellite data to identify sources of smog, particularly farm fires in Punjab and Haryana, and takes necessary action.

In response to a growing environmental and health crisis, antipollution measures are being strengthened. However, to ensure success, government bodies at various levels must need to gather the political will to boost investment, foster cross-boundary cooperation, and motivate both citizens and businesses to make their contributions.

Why is it in the News?

The drugs regulator has granted market authorisation to India's breakthrough CAR-T cell therapy for patients with B-cell lymphomas who didn't respond to standard treatments like chemotherapy.

News Summary:

• India’s first indigenously developed Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR)-T Cell T therapy, a cutting-edge treatment for specific types of cancer patients, has shown promising results and could be the safest therapy in this category so far, researchers have said.
• The therapy was tested on six paediatric patients of Acute Lymphocytic Leukaemia and 10 adults suffering from B-cell lymphoma as part of phase one clinical trials by researchers associated with the Tata Memorial Hospital in Mumbai and the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay.

What is CAR-T cell therapy, and how do CAR-T cells find and destroy cancer cells?

• CAR-T is a revolutionary therapy that modifies immune cells, specifically T-cells, by turning them into potent cancer fighters known as CAR-T cells.
• T-cells are special cells (white blood cells that find and fight illness and infection) whose primary function is cytotoxic, meaning they can kill other cells.
• In CAR-T therapy, we genetically modify them into cancer-fighting cells. These supercharged cells are then put back into the body, and they go after cancer cells — especially in blood cancers like leukaemia and lymphomas.

Here's how CAR-T cell therapy works?

• Collection: First, a patient's T cells are taken from their blood through a process called "leukapheresis."
• Genetic Modification: These T cells are then sent to a laboratory where they are genetically modified to make them better at attacking cancer.
• Preparation: Before the modified T cells are returned to the patient, the patient typically undergoes several days of chemotherapy.
• This chemotherapy helps create the right environment in the body for the modified T cells to work against the cancer.
• Infusion: Once the environment is ready, the patient receives an infusion of the modified T cells.
• This process is similar to receiving a blood transfusion and takes about 30 to 90 minutes.
• Activation: The CAR-T cells become active and start to attack the cancer cells.
• However, this activation process can lead to side effects, such as a high fever, a fast heart rate, low blood pressure, and low blood oxygen levels.
• Some patients may also experience temporary neurological effects like confusion, tremors, and difficulty communicating.
• Recovery typically occurs within two weeks after one cycle of the treatment.
• Approximately 70% of patients respond to the treatment, with variations between leukaemia and lymphoma cases.
• About 50% of these responsive patients achieve a complete response.

How effective and different is this from other cancer treatments like, say, chemotherapy?

• While chemotherapy and immunotherapy may add a few months or years to a cancer patient’s life, cell-and-gene therapy is designed to cure and provide lifelong benefits.
• It makes treatment easier with a one-time therapy [unlike several sessions of chemotherapy] that can be truly transformative [for a patient].
• It’s a lifeline for non-responsive cancer patients.

What is NexCAR19?

• NexCar19 is a type of CAR-T and gene therapy developed indigenously in India by ImmunoACT, which is a company incubated at IIT Bombay.
• This therapy is designed to target cancer cells that carry the CD19 protein.
• This protein acts like a flag on cancer cells, which allows CAR-T cells to recognise and attach themselves to the cancer cells and start the process of elimination.
• India is now one of the first developing countries to have its indigenous CAR-T and gene therapy platform.
• Even some developed nations don’t have their own CAR-T therapies; they import them from the United States or Europe.

Who is eligible for the NexCAR19 therapy?

• This therapy is for people with B-cell lymphomas who didn’t respond to standard treatments like chemotherapy, leading to relapse or recurrence of the cancer.
• B-cell lymphoma is a kind of cancer that begins in white blood cells called lymphocytes.
• Lymphocytes produce antibodies, which are proteins that aid in the fight against infections.
• They are frequently discovered in lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs, like the spleen.

Are the children eligible for this therapy too?

• B-cell leukaemia is most common among children.
• The paediatric trial phase is currently underway at the Tata Memorial Hospital, in collaboration with IIT-Bombay.
• Although the therapy for children will not be any different, for now, ImmunoACT has received CDSCO approval for use in patients aged 15 years and older.

Is there any side-effects of this therapy?

• It significantly reduces drug-related toxicities, causing minimal harm to neurons and the central nervous system—a condition known as neurotoxicity.
• Neurotoxicity can occasionally occur when CAR-T cells recognize the CD19 protein and access the brain, potentially leading to life-threatening situations.
• Additionally, the therapy results in minimal Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS), characterized by inflammation and hyperinflammation in the body due to the death of a substantial number of tumor cells.

Conclusion

The treatment is not intended for someone who is newly diagnosed. Instead, it’s an alternative for those who already have gone through other more conventional cancer therapy, such as chemotherapy or immunotherapy, and that treatment has been unsuccessful.

A considerable amount of research is underway to see if CAR-T cell therapy could be appropriate as a treatment for different forms of cancer, too, including other blood cancers such as multiple myeloma. So if a patient has a type of cancer that hasn’t responded well to traditional treatment, it may be worthwhile to explore the possibility of enrolling in a clinical research trial that’s using CAR-T cell therapy.

Why is it in the News?

Residents in many villages of Maharashtra’s Dharashiv district on November 1 launched a ‘jail bharo’ (court arrest) protest in support of the Maratha quota agitation.

News Summary:

• The Maratha quota agitation intensified in Maharashtra after activist Manoj Jarange started an indefinite hunger strike to press the quota demand.
• The demand for OBC reservation emerged with the Supreme Court's May 2021 ruling that invalidated the Maratha quota established by the state's Socially and Educationally Backward Class (SEBC) Act, 2018.
• The Marathas want to be recognized as Kunbis, which would entitle them to benefits under the Other Backward Classes (OBC) quota.
• The State Govt. on asked officials to issue fresh Kunbi caste certificates to eligible Maratha community members from Marathwada, paving the way for them to avail reservation benefits under the Other Backward Classes (OBC) category.
• However, Mr. Jarange opposed the move saying the entire Maratha community should be given reservation.

Historical Background of the Maratha Community:

• The Marathas, historically identified as a “warrior” caste, comprise mainly peasant and landowning groups and makeup 33 per cent of the population in Maharashtra.
• The Maratha Kshatriyas have surnames like Deshmukh, Bhonsle, More, Shirke and Jadhav while most others belong to Kunbi, a predominantly agrarian sub-caste.
• The Kshatriya-Kunbi difference existed till the days of the Maratha empire.
• Now, most Marathas are engaged in farming activities.

Difference between Marathas and Marathis:

• While all Marathas are Marathis, not all Marathis are Marathas. Maratha signifies a group of castes, while Marathi is the language spoken by several communities in Maharashtra and some neighbouring areas of other states.
• A maximal circle of 96 clans is said to include all true Maratha, but the lists of these 96 clans are highly varied and disputed.

What is the issue of Maratha Reservation?

• The Marathas have been the politically dominant community in Maharashtra — since the formation of the state in 1960 as 12 of its 20 Chief Ministers have been Marathas.
• However, with a divide in holdings and problems in the farming sector, there has been a decline in the prosperity of middle and lower-middle-class Marathas.
• The demand for the Maratha reservation has been going on for decades now.
• The demand for quota for Marathas began in 1981 when Mathadi Labour Union leader Annasaheb Patil staged a morcha in Mumbai in support of the proposal.
• The Maratha Mahasangh and the Maratha Seva Sangh organized a strong movement for the Maratha reservation in government jobs and educational institutions in 1997.
• The issue was brought up again in 2000.

Timeline of Maratha Reservation Issue:

• June 2017: An 11-member commission led by retired Justice M. G. Gaikwad was formed.
• The commission recommended providing Maratha reservation rights under the category of Socially and Educationally Backward Class (SEBC).
• November 2018: Maharashtra legislature passed a bill proposing a 16% reservation in education and government jobs for the Maratha community, declared as a socially and educationally backward class by the government.
• June 2019: The Bombay High Court upholds the constitutional validity of the Maratha quota under the Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC) Act, 2018.
• It reduces the quota from 16% to 12% in education and 13% in government jobs, following the recommendations of the Maharashtra State Backward Class Commission.
• May 2021: The Supreme Court invalidated the Maratha reservation in 2021, citing the 1992 cap of 50% on all reservations. (Indira Sawhney judgment 1992)
• The total reservation ceiling was raised to 64% and 65%, respectively, by the Maratha reservations of 12% and 13% in employment and education, respectively.

Indira Sawhney judgment 1992

• In the Indira Sawhney judgment (1992), the Supreme Court made it clear that 50% reservations should generally be the rule, and the limit could only be relaxed in specific exceptional situations, typically in remote areas, to include them in mainstream opportunities.
• The Supreme Court stated that there were no such "exceptional circumstances" or "extraordinary situations" in Maharashtra to exceed the 50% reservation limit.
• Additionally, the court ruled that the state government couldn't grant socially and economically backward status to a community.
• Only the president has the authority to make changes to the central list of socially and backward classes; states can only provide suggestions.
• While the Bench unanimously upheld the constitutional validity of the 102nd Constitution Amendment, there was a difference of opinion on whether it affected the states' power to identify Socially and Economically Backward Classes (SEBCs).
• The Supreme Court emphasized that a separate reservation for the Maratha community goes against Articles 14 (right to equality) and 21 (due process of law).
• November 2022: After the SC struck down the Maratha reservation and upheld the 10 per cent quota for the Economically Weaker Sections, the Maharashtra government said that until the issue of the Maratha reservation is resolved, economically weaker members of the community can benefit from the EWS quota.
• April 2023: The state government declared that it will file a curative petition and establish a new panel to conduct a thorough assessment of the community's "backwardness" following the SC's denial of its review plea.