Why is it in the News?

Calculations by HSBC Research show overall carbon emissions are lower in hybrids compared to electrics. India's electric mobility plan is currently focused on battery electrics. But as global examples show, there are challenges to the wider adoption of EVs in India.

Context:

• HSBC Research recommends India prioritize hybrid vehicles as a crucial step towards full electrification over 5-10 years.
• Hybrid cars offer lower emissions compared to traditional and electric vehicles, with emissions likely to converge within a decade.
• Combining internal combustion engines with onboard electric motors, hybrids provide a balanced propulsion approach.
• This strategy aligns with India's sustainability goals, bridging the gap towards complete electrification in transportation.

Why does Hybrid Vehicles are a Good Medium-term Solution?

• Hybrid vehicles are an effective medium-term solution for India's transportation needs as it progresses towards full electrification.
• Hybrids, along with compressed natural gas cars, offer practical advantages over the next 5-10 years.
• They are deemed critical not only for cost-effectiveness but also for India's decarbonization efforts.
  • Hybrids emit 133 g/km of total (well-to-wheel) carbon emissions, compared to 158 g/km for electric vehicles, making hybrids at least 16% less polluting.
• This analysis factors in not just tailpipe emissions but also considers emissions from vehicle operations (tank-to-wheel) and the entire lifecycle, including crude mining, refining, and power generation.

For How Long Is This Situation Expected to Hold?

• The convergence of emissions between electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids is anticipated within 7-10 years.
  • Currently, in India, non-fossil fuel sources account for 26% of power generation, with a blended emission rate of 716g/kWh.
  • The emissions from hybrid cars and EVs will align once non-fossil fuel power generation in India reaches 44%.
• Even with a projected 40% share of non-fossil fuels by 2030, hybrids are predicted to emit 8% less than EVs, although this reduction will be half of the current 16%.

What are the Challenges Faced by Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)?

The global push for battery electric vehicles (BEVs) faces several challenges:

• Upfront Subsidy: BEV adoption, as seen in Norway, the US, and China, heavily relies on state subsidies.
  • However, in countries like India, direct subsidies often benefit middle or upper-middle-class buyers, raising equity concerns.
• Charging Infrastructure: Investing in charging networks, as demonstrated by Norway and China, significantly boosts EV adoption.
  • However, India's charging infrastructure lags, with only about 2,000 operational public charging stations, posing a challenge, especially considering the dominance of two- and three-wheelers.
• Electricity Source: Unlike countries with renewable-heavy grids, India largely relies on coal-fired plants.
  • This raises questions about the environmental benefits of EVs and highlights the need for cleaner energy generation.
• Value Chain: India's reliance on lithium-ion batteries exposes the vulnerability in the global supply chain, primarily dominated by a few countries.
  • Diversification strategies are crucial to mitigate risks and ensure sustainable battery production.

What are the Difference Between Hybrid and Electric Vehicles?

• Hybrid Vehicles: Hybrid vehicles utilize a combination of an internal combustion engine (usually gasoline-powered) and an electric motor.
  • These vehicles can operate on both gasoline and electricity, either separately or in tandem.
  • The environmental impact of hybrid vehicles is typically lower than that of traditional gasoline-powered vehicles due to their ability to switch to electric power, reducing fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions.
  • However, they still rely partially on fossil fuels and produce emissions during combustion.
• Electric Vehicles: Electric vehicles (EVs) are powered solely by electricity stored in batteries.
  • They produce zero tailpipe emissions, making them cleaner and more environmentally friendly than hybrid vehicles and traditional internal combustion engine vehicles.
    • However, the overall environmental impact of EVs depends on factors such as the source of electricity generation.
  • If the electricity comes from renewable sources like solar or wind, EVs can have a significantly lower environmental footprint compared to hybrid vehicles.

Does Electric Vehicles Pollute More than Hybrid Vehicles?

It's not accurate to say that electric cars pollute more than hybrid cars in general. However, there are specific contexts where electric cars might appear to have a higher environmental impact than hybrids.

• One such context is during the manufacturing process. Electric cars typically require large batteries, which involve the extraction of raw materials like lithium and cobalt.
  • The extraction and processing of these materials can result in environmental degradation and pollution.
  • Additionally, the manufacturing process for electric cars may require more energy compared to hybrid vehicles.
• Another factor is the source of electricity used to charge electric cars.
  • If the electricity comes from fossil fuels like coal or natural gas, then the overall environmental impact of electric cars may be higher than that of hybrids, which can partially rely on gasoline.
  • However, as renewable energy sources like solar and wind power become more prevalent, the environmental benefits of electric cars increase significantly.
• In terms of operational emissions, electric cars produce zero tailpipe emissions, while hybrids emit pollutants when running on gasoline.
  • However, hybrids still produce fewer emissions than traditional gasoline-powered vehicles.

What About Other “Clean Vehicles”?

• Apart from electric cars, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles offer another zero-emission alternative.
• Unlike electric vehicles, which draw power from charging stations, hydrogen fuel cell cars generate electricity internally.
• They utilize a fuel cell that combines hydrogen from an onboard tank with oxygen from the air, emitting only water vapour and warm air.
• While hydrogen fuel cell cars hold promise for decarbonizing industries like aviation and shipping, they face challenges.
• They are less common and pricier than electric cars, with lower energy efficiency.
• Moreover, the environmental impact of hydrogen production varies: "green hydrogen" sourced from renewable energy is scarce, while most hydrogen is currently derived from "grey" or "blue" processes, which involve emissions or carbon capture complexities.

Conclusion

While hybrid vehicles offer a transitional solution, electric vehicles remain pivotal in reducing emissions. Overcoming challenges in charging infrastructure and energy sourcing is vital for maximizing their environmental benefits. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles show promise but require significant advancements. A holistic approach, including innovation and policy support, is crucial for realizing the potential of clean mobility solutions.

Why is it in the News?

A fair and effective health system requires freedom from political influence, focusing on policymaking and implementation driven by scientific evidence and long-term objectives.

Background:

• Within India's diverse landscape, where bustling cities coexist with serene villages, there's a subtle yet crucial struggle unfolding in the realm of public health.
• Despite its significance, this battle often takes a backseat to the allure of curing illnesses. While disease prevention holds paramount importance, political attention tends to gravitate towards visible and immediate achievements such as constructing new medical facilities, offering affordable treatments, and managing crises.
• Hence, there arises a pressing need to examine the challenges and deficiencies within the existing democratic approach to public health, emphasizing the necessity for evidence-based strategies geared towards long-term objectives.

What is the Present Condition of Public Health and Nutrition in India?

• According to the 5th National Family Health Survey 2019-21:
  • 35.5% of children under 5 exhibited stunted growth.
  • 32.1% were underweight.
  • The prevalence of anaemia among children aged 6-59 months rose from 58.6% to 67.1%.
  • Among women aged 15-19 years, the prevalence of anaemia increased from 54.1% to 59.1%.
  • These statistics underscore a notable disparity in public health endeavours.

The Incongruity of the Democratic Process in India's Public Health:

• Emphasis on Infrastructure and Immediate Relief: The inclination towards constructing new hospitals and providing subsidized treatments reflects democratic governance in India.
  • While these initiatives address immediate healthcare needs, their impact on sustained population health still needs to be improved.
  • During health crises, political leaders often prioritize emergency response strategies, swiftly mobilizing state resources.
  • However, many of these measures yield minimal impact due to insufficient follow-through beyond public announcements.
• Preferring Emergency Response over Vital Preventive Measures: Budget constraints often limit the effective implementation of announced initiatives, raising concerns about their long-term sustainability and impact.
  • This emphasis on visible achievements can overshadow critical areas like sanitation, disease surveillance, and public health education.
  • Yet, these aspects are vital for maintaining population health and averting disease outbreaks.
  • The significance of quieter victories achieved through preventive measures, such as eradicating diseases like smallpox and controlling polio, often goes unnoticed despite their substantial contributions to public well-being.

A Case Study of Dengue Illustrating This Dilemma

• Immediate Response Emphasis: During dengue outbreaks, political leaders often prioritize swift relief actions, such as establishing relief camps and offering symptomatic treatments.
  • This reactive stance arises from the urgency of the situation and the imperative to alleviate the immediate suffering of affected communities.
  • However, the lack of emphasis on preventive measures can perpetuate a cycle of recurrent outbreaks, straining healthcare resources further.
• Overlooking Underlying Causes and Prevention: The focus on emergency relief efforts may overshadow the significance of long-term strategies, including studying vector bionomics, developing vaccines, and enhancing public health infrastructure.
  • Consequently, the current approach falls short of averting future outbreaks and burdens the healthcare system.
  • Research and development in these realms are imperative. For instance, despite limitations, the existing dengue vaccine underscores the necessity for further exploration.
  • Additionally, climate change impacts mosquito breeding and movement patterns, necessitating adaptations in public health strategies.

What are the challenges in Public Health in India:

• Prioritizing Short-Term Gains: Political leaders often prioritize initiatives promising immediate results, like constructing new hospitals and offering subsidized treatments, over long-term public health strategies.
• Budgetary Limitations: Despite announcements, the impact of these short-term measures is limited due to constraints in budget allocation and implementation beyond public announcements.
• Neglect of Vital Areas: Critical aspects such as sanitation, disease surveillance, and public health education are often overlooked, despite their significance in maintaining population health and preventing disease outbreaks.
  • For example, in the case of Dengue, relief efforts overshadow long-term strategies like vector control and vaccine development.
• Profit-Driven Pharmaceutical Sector: The profit-oriented nature of the pharmaceutical industry sidelines public health priorities, leading to disparities in medicine availability, particularly concerning diseases like tuberculosis, which disproportionately affect socio-economically disadvantaged populations.
• Lack of Holistic Approach: Addressing public health challenges necessitates interdisciplinary expertise from fields like environmental science, sociology, urban planning, and economics.
  • However, India's current approach remains predominantly physician-centric, overlooking broader societal and environmental factors.

What Steps Can Be Taken?

• Prioritize Research and Development: Emphasize research, particularly in vaccine development and understanding the influence of climate change on disease vectors, to inform proactive public health strategies.
• Depoliticize Health Decision-Making: Ensure that public health policies are driven by scientific evidence and long-term objectives rather than short-term political considerations.
• Enhance Nutrition Support: Increase investments in nutrition programs, recognising their significant long-term benefits for health and productivity.
• Adopt a Holistic Approach: Implement a comprehensive public health management strategy that encompasses preventive measures, policy development, community health initiatives, and environmental health considerations.
• Grant Autonomy to Health Ministries: Consider granting health ministries greater autonomy, potentially placing them directly under the leadership of elected officials such as Chief Ministers or Prime Ministers, similar to India’s space and atomic energy departments, to facilitate more effective decision-making and implementation processes.

Conclusion

Although democracy itself is not detrimental to public health, the existing approach within democratic frameworks frequently lacks effectiveness. There is a pressing requirement to rethink public health governance, prioritizing evidence-based, comprehensive, and forward-looking strategies that cater to both present and future health requirements.

Why is it in the News?

The drafting of India’s first National Security Strategy document includes a provision to expedite domestic defense manufacturing, while concurrently aiming to elevate ten Indian universities into the ranks of the global top 100.

Context:

• As India develops its first National Security Strategy, the main goal is to speed up the production of defense equipment indigenously.
• But with the world changing, it's becoming more obvious that there's a strong connection between knowledge and weapons.
• Technologies like drones, satellite internet, and artificial intelligence are being used in both civilian and military areas, blurring the lines between them.
• So, it's important for our strategy to adapt to these changes and make sure we're prepared for the future.

Examining Geopolitical Changes and Technological Boundaries:

• Reviewing Economic Integration: Previously, the United States played a crucial role in accelerating China's integration into the global economy.
  • However, the recognition of the strategic implications of advanced technologies has prompted a reevaluation of this approach.
  • The concept of safeguarding critical technological advancements for national security reasons, as advocated by the U.S. National Security Advisor, suggests a shift towards placing foundational technologies behind a high fence.
• Scrutinizing Friend Shoring: The notion of friend shoring, which involves maintaining economic partnerships between countries with conflicting interests, is facing increased scrutiny.
  • Recent statements from the White House Economic Council Director regarding concerns over a Japanese company with Chinese operations acquiring a U.S. steel company highlight growing apprehensions surrounding economic ties with potential adversaries.
• China's Response and Technology Restrictions: In response to perceived threats to its technological sovereignty, China has implemented measures to restrict the use of certain foreign technologies.
  • Notably, Tesla cars and Apple phones have been prohibited from Chinese army bases due to concerns regarding sophisticated surveillance features such as cameras, microphones, and cloud backups.
• Xi Jinping's Dual Circulation Strategy: Under Xi Jinping's leadership, China has embraced a dual circulation strategy, emphasizing the utilization of Chinese technologies whenever possible and resorting to foreign technologies only when necessary.
  • This strategic approach reflects a deliberate effort to reduce dependence on external sources, aligning with broader objectives of technological self-sufficiency.
• Challenges in Indo-Pak Relations and China's Evolving Approach: India grapples with ongoing geopolitical challenges, particularly from Pakistan, which remains steadfast in its decades-old conflict stance.
  • China's evolving policy towards prioritizing domestic technologies mirrors shifts in the global landscape.

Technology Advancements Through Military-University Collaborations: A Historical Context

• MIT's Impact in World War II: During World War II, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) emerged as a crucial centre for pioneering research and technological breakthroughs that significantly influenced the war effort.
  • Led by Vannevar Bush, MIT's School of Engineering transitioned to chair the National Defense Research Committee and the Office of Scientific Research and Development in 1939, facilitating seamless collaboration between academia and the military.
  • MIT's contributions during this period were extensive, ranging from radar development for various applications to the creation of the Long-Range Navigation (LORAN) system.
  • This collaboration demonstrated how academic institutions swiftly responded to wartime demands, providing technological solutions with lasting impacts.
• The Birth of Silicon Valley: The post-World War II era witnessed the continuation of military-university collaborations, notably contributing to the genesis of Silicon Valley.
  • Frank Terman, an MIT doctoral student under Vannevar Bush and later the dean of Stanford's engineering school, played a pivotal role in fostering connections between academia and the military.
  • Terman's influence was instrumental in nurturing Silicon Valley into a global epicentre of technological innovation.
• Symbiotic Alliance Between Academia and Defense: The historical collaboration between universities and the military underscores the symbiotic relationship between academic research and national defence.
  • These partnerships, forged during critical historical moments, not only drove technological progress but also underscored the vital role of knowledge exchange between academia and the military in fostering strategic innovation.

Rethinking the Value of Global University Rankings

• Challenges with Ranking Methodologies: Critics often challenge the validity of global university rankings, suggesting they prioritize popularity over genuine educational excellence.
  • Common metrics like peer surveys can introduce biases and may not accurately reflect an institution's academic prowess.
  • Additionally, certain metrics may not capture the full spectrum of educational quality, raising concerns about the reliability of rankings.
• Limitations in Evaluation Criteria: Global rankings tend to focus heavily on research output and international reputation, neglecting other crucial aspects such as teaching quality.
  • This incomplete assessment overlooks the diverse educational goals and values of institutions, leading to an ideological bias in the rankings.
  • A more comprehensive evaluation framework that considers a broader range of factors is needed to provide a holistic view of educational excellence.
• Importance of Global Rankings: While facing criticism, global university rankings remain significant in the academic sphere.
  • Many universities worldwide set goals to improve their rankings, using them as benchmarks for management decisions and promotional efforts.
  • Institutions frequently devise strategies and allocate resources based on their standing in these rankings.

 Evaluating India's University Ranking Objectives: A Strategic Necessity

• Strategies for Enhancement - Government Initiatives Encompass: Selecting and investing in 20 government universities to establish research centres equipped with substantial resources, including extensive research facilities and industry liaison offices.
  • Streamlining resources by consolidating Research Laboratories and integrating independent research facilities into the top 20 government institutions to promote collaborative research endeavours.
  • Redirecting government research funding primarily towards universities, mirroring the approach of established bodies like the U.S. National Institute of Health and National Science Foundation.
  • Promoting corporate-university research partnerships through financial incentives, such as tax incentives for companies engaging in research activities at Indian institutions.
• Strategic Alliances with Defense Endeavors: The government's intent to collaborate with defence initiatives, as indicated by the proposed Defence Technology Council, underscores the alignment between academic excellence and national security objectives.
  • Establishing strategic alliances with universities can enhance project management efficiency, addressing concerns highlighted by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) regarding timelines in defence projects.

Conclusion

India's National Security Strategy must evolve in response to shifting geopolitics and technological advancements. It is essential to prioritize the elevation of universities to global stature, recognizing the interconnectedness of knowledge, defence, and national security.

Through strategic initiatives that tackle challenges and foster collaboration between academia and government, India can establish itself as a significant player in the ever-changing global security landscape.

Why is it in the News?

To dissuade concerns that Europe is overregulating artificial intelligence (AI), which could stifle innovation in the bloc, the European Commission has released a set of rules to enable start-ups and other businesses to access hardware – such as supercomputers and computing capacity – for them to build large- scale AI models

Context:

• To address concerns about excessive regulation stifling innovation in Europe, the European Commission has introduced rules allowing startups and businesses to access hardware, like supercomputers, to develop large-scale AI models.
• This supports the EU's new AI Act, designed to promote trustworthy AI across the region.
• India is also considering a similar initiative to provide computing capacity for startups, aiming to establish high-capacity data centres through a public-private partnership model.
• Access to computing power is crucial for building advanced AI systems, alongside innovative algorithms and datasets, especially challenging for smaller businesses to obtain.

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, particularly computer systems.
• These processes include learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding.
• AI technologies enable machines to analyze large amounts of data, recognize patterns, and make decisions or predictions based on that data.
• There are several types of AI, including narrow or weak AI, which is designed for specific tasks like speech recognition or playing chess, and general or strong AI, which aims to perform any intellectual task that a human can do.
  • Machine learning, a subset of AI, involves training algorithms to recognise patterns in data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to do so.
• AI has applications across various industries, including healthcare, finance, transportation, and manufacturing.
• It is used for tasks such as medical diagnosis, fraud detection, autonomous vehicles, and predictive maintenance.
• As AI technology continues to advance, it holds the potential to revolutionize many aspects of society, improving efficiency, productivity, and decision-making processes.

What is Europe’s AI Innovation Plan?

• The European Commission has introduced a set of initiatives aimed at assisting European startups and small businesses in creating reliable AI technology.
• These initiatives encompass various measures to foster innovation among startups, including a proposal to grant special access to supercomputers for AI startups and the wider innovation community. The plan includes:
  • Acquiring, upgrading and operating AI-dedicated supercomputers to enable fast machine learning and training of large general-purpose AI (GPAI) models.
  •  Facilitating access to the AI dedicated supercomputers, contributing to the widening of the use of AI to a large number of public and private users, including start-ups and SMEs.
  •  Supporting the AI startup and research ecosystem in algorithmic development, testing evaluation and validation of large-scale AI models.
  •  Enabling the development of a variety of emerging AI applications based on GPAI models.

How is the EU’s Plan Similar to India’s?

• The Indian government is currently outlining an AI Mission, which is expected to undergo Cabinet approval soon, with a budget exceeding Rs 10,000 crore.
  • As part of this initiative, the government aims to develop its own 'sovereign AI,' enhance computational capabilities domestically, and provide compute-as-a-service to Indian startups.
  • Capacity building will be pursued both within the government and through a public-private partnership model, emphasizing India’s goal to capitalize on the forthcoming AI boom as a vital economic driver.
• Overall, the country aims to establish a computing capacity ranging from 10,000 to 30,000 GPUs (graphic processing units) through the PPP model, in addition to 1,000-2,000 GPUs facilitated by the PSU Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC).
  • The government is exploring various incentive structures for private companies to establish computing centres in the country, including capital expenditure subsidies, operational expense-based incentives, and a "usage" fee model.
• The government intends to transform the GPU assembly into a digital public infrastructure (DPI), allowing startups to access its computational capacity at a reduced cost, without having to invest in GPUs, which are typically the largest expense in such operations.

Why is the EU especially enabling AI Innovation?

• Until now, the most prominent advancements in AI have been spearheaded by American companies like OpenAI and Google, along with emerging ventures such as Perplexity and Anthropic.
• Europe, which has traditionally prioritized regulating technologies with a focus on human rights, has faced criticism from the industry for potentially overregulating AI even before its widespread adoption across the continent.
  • Unlike the US, where numerous American companies have made significant strides in offering hardware services to businesses, Europe has identified a need to facilitate access to hardware resources for AI development.
• This move by the European Commission follows the introduction of an AI Act last year, which has faced criticism.
  • The legislation aims to establish safeguards for AI usage within the EU, including clear guidelines for its adoption by law enforcement agencies and provisions empowering consumers to report any perceived violations.
  • Additionally, the AI Act imposes stringent restrictions on facial recognition technology and the use of AI to influence human behaviour, while also outlining severe penalties for companies found in breach of these regulations.
• Moreover, the legislation stipulates that governments can employ real-time biometric surveillance in public areas only in cases involving serious threats, such as terrorist attacks.

European Commission (EC)

• The European Commission is the European Union's executive body and represents the interests of Europe as a whole.
  • It drafts proposals for new European laws.
  • It manages the day-to-day business of implementing EU policies and spending EU funds.
• It is made up of 27 commissioners (one from each member state) and is based in Brussels.
  • Each member state nominates a commissioner, but the nominated candidates must be approved by the European Parliament.
  • The Parliament must also approve the President of the European Commission.
• The current President of the European Commission is Ursula von der Leyen.
• Commissioners do not represent their countries. Instead, they have a field of responsibility.
• To assist the commissioners in the performance of their duties, there is a staff of about 32,000 people employed by the Commission.
  • This staff comes from all of the Member States and includes policy officers, translators, lawyers and researchers.

What does the European Commission do?

• Legislation – The Commission initiates legislation. It makes proposals for laws that are sent to the European Parliament and Council of the European Union for approval.
• Upholding EU law – The Commission can take action against businesses or states that are failing to comply with EU law.
• Policy – The Commission is the executive of the EU. It manages policies and drafts budgets.
• Representation – The Commission represents the EU in negotiations with other countries or organisations.
• The Commission meets once a week to adopt proposals, finalise policy papers and make decisions.
  • Decisions are taken by a simple majority vote.

Why is it in the News?

Turkey’s parliament ratified Sweden’s Nato membership bid recently, clearing the biggest remaining hurdle to expand the Western military alliance after 20 months of delay.

News Summary:

• Turkey's parliament ratified Sweden's NATO membership bid recently, clearing the biggest remaining hurdle to expand the Western military alliance after 20 months of delay.
• Sweden and Finland applied to join in May 2022, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine.
  • The two countries feared for their security.
• Finland - which has a 1,340km land border with Russia - became a Nato member in April 2023.
• Turkey had been blocking Sweden's application because it said the country had refused to hand over members of militant groups such as the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK).
• Sweden's bid for membership was finally approved by the Turkish parliament on 23 January.
• Now, Sweden only needs Hungary's parliament to approve its membership.
• For a nation to become a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the consent of all current member countries is required.
• Turkey has been a member of NATO since 1952.

Why does Sweden want to join NATO?

• Sweden has not fought a war in two centuries, staying neutral through the two World Wars and the Cold War.
• In recent years, while it joined the European Union and collaborated with NATO, it showed no intention of actually joining the military alliance its powerful neighbour, Russia, is hostile to.
• However, this neutrality had to be abandoned after Russia invaded Ukraine.
• With public opinion increasingly in favour of joining NATO, both Sweden and Finland applied for membership in 2022.
• While Finland’s bid was cleared, Sweden ran into stiff opposition from Turkey’s President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and Hungary’s Prime Minister Viktor Orban.
• Once a country is a NATO member, an attack on its territory is considered an attack on the US-led alliance, and all 31 members are obliged to defend each other.

Why was Turkey opposing Sweden’s bid?

• Turkey had accused Sweden of going soft on groups it sees as terrorists, such as the Kurdish militant outfit the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK).
  • Quran-burning protests held in Sweden, which its government says are protected under freedom of speech laws, further soured its relationship with Turkey.
• Erdogan had also linked Turkey’s support to Sweden with the US agreeing to sell 40 F-16 fighter jets to Ankara. While the US had not said the deal would depend on Turkey’s Sweden actions, the sale is expected to go through now.

What will Sweden bring to NATO?

• Once Sweden becomes a member, almost all of the Baltic Sea coastline, except that in Russia’s control, will become NATO territory.
• This will provide the alliance with strategic bases close to Russia, make supply lines more streamlined, and make it easier to defend assets in the sea.
• Sweden’s military, though numerically small, is modern and experienced in past NATO missions. Importantly, it has advanced aircraft and submarine capabilities.

What is NATO?

• Established in the aftermath of World War II, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance between 28 European countries and 2 North American countries and is headquartered in Belgium.
• It implements the North Atlantic Treaty, which is a system of collective security, where its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party.
• The most recent member to be added was Finland on 4 April 2023.
• Since its founding on April 4, 1949, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 30.

Background:

 In the event of a possible attack by Germany, a Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance was signed by France and the United Kingdom in 1947.

• Later next year, the alliance was expanded to include Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, in the form of the Western Union.
• In 1949, talks for the new military alliance which would include North America resulted in the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty.
• The Treaty included the members of the Western Union and the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland.
• In May 1955, West Germany was permitted to rearm militarily, as they joined NATO, which was a major factor in the creation of the Soviet Union-dominated Warsaw Pact, delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War.
• In October 1990, East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance, and in November 1990, the alliance signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) in Paris with the Soviet Union.
• The treaty mandated specific military reductions across Europe, which continued after the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in February 1991 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which removed the de facto main adversaries of NATO.
• The Treaty was largely dormant until the Korean War initiated the establishment of NATO to implement it, by means of an integrated military structure, which included the formation of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in 1951, adopting the Western Union's military structures and plans.

 What is the Purpose of NATO?

• According to NATO, its purpose is to guarantee the freedom and security of its members through political and military means.
  • By political, it means the organisation promotes democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on defence and security-related issues to solve problems, build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict.
  • Militarily, NATO says it is committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes, and if diplomatic efforts fail, it has the power to undertake crisis-management operations, under the collective defence clause - Article 5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United Nations mandate, alone or in cooperation with other countries.
• Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks, after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan.

The Role of NATO in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict:

 Among the 30 countries in the organisation, Ukraine is not a member, even though it has included three former Soviet republics -- the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.

• In 2008, NATO appeared to open the door to membership to two more former Soviet republics when its heads of government declared that Georgia and Ukraine "will become members of NATO."
• Neither has formally received eventual membership, with a lack of consensus among members.
  • Russian President Vladimir Putin demanded that Ukraine never join the alliance as he seeks to limit NATO’s presence in Eastern Europe.
• Days before Putin announced a military operation in Ukraine in February 2022, he in a televised address linked the current crisis directly to Russia's Nato demands, which include a guarantee that the organisation stop expanding to the East and pull back its infrastructure from Eastern European countries that joined after the Cold War.
• If the conflict goes beyond Ukraine and impacts Nato members, it could lead the organisation to invoke its mutual self-defence clause, i.e.,  Article 5 of the Nato treaty.

Why is it in the News?

The Supreme Court is set to hear the dispute over the expansion of the Border Security Force (BSF) jurisdiction in Punjab.

Context:

• The Supreme Court will hear petitions filed by the Punjab government against the Centre’s notification expanding the jurisdiction of Border Security Forces (BSF) to 50 km from the international border in Punjab.
• This comes after the Centre in 2021 decided to expand the BSF’s jurisdiction to undertake search, seizure and arrest within a larger 50-kilometre stretch from the International Border compared to the earlier limit of 15 kilometres.
• The Centre had also decided to decrease the BSF’s area of operation in Gujarat from 80 kilometres from the border to just 50 kilometres.

What is the Border Security Force (BSF)?

• The BSF was established on 1 December 1965 after the India-Pakistan war.
• With a strength of about 2.65 lakh personnel, it has 192 operational battalions and deployed along the Pakistan and Bangladesh borders.
• It is the country’s largest border force and one of the Central Armed Police Forces of the Union of India under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
  • The other forces include the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), the Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) and the Assam Rifles, Central Industrial Security Force (CISF), Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) and National Security Guards (NSG).
• It also contributes dedicated services to the UN peacekeeping Mission by sending a large contingent of its trained manpower every year
• The BSF is meant to secure India’s borders with its neighbouring nations and is empowered to arrest, search and seize under a number of laws, such as the Criminal Procedure Code, the Passports Act, the Passport (Entry into India) Act, and the NDPS Act, to name a few.

Why was the BSF Jurisdiction Extended?

• Section 139(1) of the BSF Act allows the central government, through an order, to designate an area “within the local limits of such area adjoining the borders of India” where members of the BSF can exercise powers to prevent offences under any Acts that the central government may specify.
  • Prior to the notification issued in October 2021, the BSF could exercise its powers within 15 kilometres of the border in Punjab, West Bengal and Assam.
  • The Centre expanded this to within 50 kilometres of the border.
• The notification states that, within this larger 50-kilometre jurisdiction, the BSF can only exercise powers under the Criminal Procedure Code, the Passport (Entry into India) Act and the Passports Act.
  • For other central legislations, the 15-km limit remains.
• This expansion was in response to the increased use of drones and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, which have long-range capabilities and enable surveillance and the smuggling of arms and fake currency.
  • The ‘menace of cattle smuggling’ and smugglers often seek refuge outside BSF jurisdiction.
• The centre also claimed that the notification makes the BSF jurisdiction uniform across states, as the 50-kilometre limit was already in place in Rajasthan.
  • The same notification reduced the jurisdiction in Gujarat from 80 km to 50 km.

Why Punjab Challenged This Act?

• The state of Punjab filed an ‘original suit’ against the central government in the Supreme Court in December 2021 and alleged that the extension of the territorial jurisdiction of BSF encroaches upon its own constitutional jurisdiction.
  • The Supreme Court has ‘original jurisdiction’ in disputes between the central government and states under Article 131 of the Constitution, which means cases of this kind can only be heard for the first time at the SC “to the exclusion of any other court”.
• The Punjab government claimed that expanding the jurisdiction of the BSF would compromise the state’s exclusive powers to legislate on matters involving the police and public order.
  • These powers are provided in Entries 1 and 2 of the State List under Article 246 of the Constitution.
  • They also claimed that the notification was issued without consulting with any of the states concerned.

How did Other States Respond?

• The states at the time had decried the move as an “irrational decision”, a “direct attack on federalism” and an attempt to “interfere through Central agencies”.
• Punjab and West Bengal denounced the move with the respective state Assemblies even passing resolutions against the Centre’s decision.

What are the Challenges Associated with Expanding Jurisdiction?

• Public Order vs. Security of State: Maintaining public order and policing, signifying peace, safety, and tranquillity, falls within the purview of State Governments (Entry 1 and Entry 2 of the State list, respectively).
  • However, if a severe public disorder poses a threat to the security or defence of the State or the nation itself (Entry 1 of the Union list), it becomes a matter of concern for the Union Government as well.
• Federalism Strain: Issuing notifications without state government concurrence may be seen as an infringement on state powers.
  • The Punjab Government argues that such notifications amount to the Centre encroaching under the pretext of security or development.
• Impact on BSF Operations: The extension of jurisdiction to policing in the hinterland contradicts the role of a border guarding force.
  • This shift could potentially undermine the BSF's ability to fulfil its primary duty of guarding the international border.

Issues Specific to Punjab:

• Overlapping Powers: The extended 50 km jurisdiction grants concurrent power with state police over every cognizable offence under the Indian Penal Code (IPC).
  • In a relatively small state like Punjab, this extension encompasses all major cities.
• In other states like Gujarat and Rajasthan, where the extension might be considered, Gujarat has substantial marshland, and extending jurisdiction there might be reasonable as it doesn't encompass major urban centres.
  • Similarly, in Rajasthan, the presence of a desert reduces the impact of jurisdiction extension.

Way Ahead

• Emphasis on State Consent: Considering the security dynamics in India's vicinity, the existing collaboration between Central armed forces and State civil authorities remains suitable.
  • Nonetheless, consulting with the State Government before deploying armed forces by the Union Government is recommended, whenever possible.
• State Empowerment: Each State Government, in coordination with the Union Government, should devise both short-term and long-term strategies to fortify its Armed Police.
  • The aim is to achieve substantial self-reliance in managing Armed Police matters, necessitating the Central armed forces' intervention only during exceptionally severe disturbances.
• Regional Collaboration: Neighboring States can collaboratively establish a framework for utilizing each other's Armed Police in times of necessity through consensus.
  • The Zonal Council stands out as the most apt platform for States within a zone to reach a consensus and formulate such arrangements.

Why is it in the News?`

During a NITI Aayog meeting chaired by the Prime Minister, Chief Ministers voiced their apprehensions regarding the declining revenues of the states.

Context:

• The Finance Commission holds a crucial role in suggesting the distribution formula for States' allotment of Union tax revenue.
• The formulation has witnessed changes over time in terms of the inclusion and significance of different factors, with tax contribution emerging as a central point of debate.
• It is essential to underscore the historical context, principles of equity and efficiency, and the repercussions of integrating the Goods and Services Tax (GST) regime into the distribution formula

What is the Finance Commission?

• The Finance Commission is a constitutional body responsible for providing recommendations on the distribution of tax revenues among the Union and the States, as well as among the States themselves.
• The President constitutes the Finance Commission under Article 280 of the Constitution.
  • It is established at the end of every fifth year, or earlier if deemed necessary.
• Qualifications and Selection: Parliament, through legislation, determines the qualifications for Commission members and the selection process.
  • The Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951, addresses these aspects.
• Mandate: The Commission's duties include making recommendations to the President on the distribution of tax proceeds between the Union and States, principles guiding grants-in-aid, measures to enhance State Consolidated Funds, and any other financial matters referred by the President in the interest of sound finance.
• Composition: The Commission comprises a Chairman and four members appointed by the President.
• Member Qualifications: The Chairman is selected from individuals with experience in public affairs, while the four other members are chosen from those with qualifications such as being former or eligible High Court Judges, and possessing expertise in government finances, administration, or economics.
• Tenure: Each member serves a specified term, as determined by the President, and is eligible for reappointment.
• Non-Binding Recommendations: The recommendations of the Finance Commission are advisory and not binding on the government.

The History and Evolution of the Distribution Formula:

• The historical development of the Finance Commission's distribution formula has played a pivotal role in shaping India's fiscal federalism.
• Initially focusing on personal income tax and Union excise duties, the formula underwent substantial changes with the introduction of the 10th Finance Commission, reflecting a more nuanced understanding of fiscal relations between the Union and States.
• Expansion of Revenue Streams with the 10th Finance Commission: The introduction of the 10th Finance Commission marked a significant transformation as all Central tax revenues were consolidated, expanding the range of revenue streams in the distribution formula.
  • This departure from the earlier approach acknowledged the necessity for a comprehensive framework to address the intricate fiscal dynamics among the States.
• Equity and Efficiency as Guiding Principles: The distribution formula shifted its focus to prioritise equity and efficiency.
  • Equity considerations aimed to rectify imbalances by allocating larger shares to revenue-scarce and high-expenditure States, while the efficiency principle rewarded states demonstrating proficiency in revenue collection and spending practices.
  • This departure from the earlier needs-based criteria recognized the importance of incentivizing states to enhance fiscal capacities for the country's overall economic well-being.
• Dynamic Interplay of Equity and Efficiency: The ongoing normative debate within the Indian fiscal framework is exemplified by the dynamic interplay between equity and efficiency in successive Finance Commissions' recommendations.
  • Striking the right balance between these principles remains a complex task, and the formula has evolved to reflect the changing priorities of fiscal federalism.
• Inclusion of Various Indicators: While early Finance Commissions incorporated indicators such as population, per capita income, and area in the distribution formula, a notable shift towards a more comprehensive and consolidated approach has occurred since the 10th Finance Commission.
  • The convergence of income tax and Union excise duties into a single formula from the 10th Finance Commission onward aimed to streamline the approach and ensure consistency across different revenue sources.

Evaluating Efficiency Indicators in the Distribution Formula:

• Tax contribution serves as an efficiency indicator, offering insights into a state's developmental level and economic structure.
  • Historically, it has been assigned a relatively modest weight, ranging from 10% to 20% within the distribution formula.
• In the early commissions, population, a key indicator of expenditure needs, played a dominant role, commanding weights between 80% and 90%.
• From the year 2000 onward, the distribution formula incorporated tax effort and fiscal discipline as efficiency indicators, each carrying approximately 15% weight.
  • However, these indicators encountered challenges stemming from their instability, influenced by discretionary tax policies and unexpected shifts in tax bases.

The Reasons to Consider Petrol Consumption and GST in the Distribution Formula as Efficiency Measures:

• Petroleum Consumption as a Supplementary Indicator: In addition to GST, considering petroleum consumption as an efficiency indicator adds depth to the formula.
  • Union excise duty and sales tax on petroleum products, excluded from GST, significantly contribute to the national exchequer.
  • The stable and consistent nature of relative shares of petroleum consumption across states makes it an attractive supplementary indicator for assessing a state's contribution to specific tax categories.
• Stability and Uniformity in GST Contributions: In contrast to previous indicators, GST provides a unified tax system that minimizes variations in tax efforts among states.
  • While the absolute amount of GST revenue generated may vary based on the size and economic structure of each state, the relative contributions remain stable over time.
  • This stability is crucial for establishing a fair and consistent measure of a state's efficiency, particularly in revenue collection.
• Accurate Reflection of State's Tax Base through GST Revenue: The implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) has transformed India's taxation landscape, introducing a consumption-based destination tax system that is equally divided between State and Central governments.
  • This structure offers a unique opportunity for a precise estimation of a state's tax contribution.
  • The inherent symmetry in GST ensures that the State GST accrual mirrors the Central GST accrual to the Union government from that state, making GST a stable and reliable measure of a state's tax base.
• Exclusion of Discretionary Policies in GST: One significant advantage of incorporating GST into the distribution formula is its insulation from discretionary tax policies.
  • Unlike tax effort, which can be influenced by state-specific policy decisions, GST reflects the accurate tax base of a state, unaffected by varying policy choices.
  • This characteristic makes GST a more objective and reliable indicator of a state's contribution to the national exchequer.
• Linkage to Income Levels: A compelling rationale for including both GST and petroleum consumption lies in their indirect reflection of the relative differences in the incomes accrued to the residents of a state.
  • Consumption patterns are inherently tied to income levels, making the shares of CGST and Union excise duty accurate proxies for assessing both personal and corporate income tax contributions.
• Proposal for Weightage Increase: Given the fair and accurate nature of GST and petroleum consumption as efficiency metrics, there is a strong proposal for the 16th Finance Commission to assign a more substantial weightage to these indicators.
  • A weightage of at least 33% has been suggested, considering the significant role these indicators play in reflecting a state's contribution to the national exchequer.

Conclusion

The transformation of the Finance Commission's distribution formula has moved from a reliance on population-centric indicators to embracing efficiency measures. The introduction of the GST regime, coupled with stable indicators such as petroleum consumption, offers an opportune moment to reassess the distribution formula. As the 16th Finance Commission contemplates the next formula, assigning appropriate weight to tax contribution as an efficiency indicator can guarantee a fair and accurate portrayal of states' contributions to the national exchequer.

Why is it in the News?

Reinstating a fully functional WTO dispute settlement body to resolve trade disputes between countries could take longer than expected as there continue to be wide differences between developed and developing countries over the issue, a GTRI report said recently.

Context:

• According to the GTRI report, an economic think tank, restoring a fully functional WTO dispute settlement body may take longer due to significant differences between developed and developing countries on the issue.
• This comes as the 164-member World Trade Organization (WTO) will gather next month in Abu Dhabi for the 13th ministerial conference (MC) to resolve different issues such as reforms in dispute settlement mechanisms, agriculture-related matters, etc.

Highlights of the GTRI Report:

• Escalating Protectionism: The absence of a functional dispute settlement body has fueled a surge in protectionist measures.
  • Since 2017, the US has obstructed the appointment of new judges to the WTO's seven-member appellate court, citing perceived harm to its interests.
• Delicate Balancing Act: Addressing India's appeals for an effective appellate body, special and differential treatment (S&DT) provisions, and fairness must be delicately balanced with the concerns of other members.
  • This includes considerations such as transparency and legal certainty, demanding significant compromise and negotiation.
• Complex Consensus Building: Reforming the dispute settlement system proves challenging as developed and developing nations hold divergent priorities and concerns.
  • Achieving a consensus requires navigating through intricate negotiations.
• Disproportionate Impact on the US: The proper functioning of the WTO Appellate Body disproportionately affects the US, given that over a quarter of all WTO disputes involve challenges to US laws or measures.

What is the Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI)?

• Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) is a research Group focused on Climate Change, technology and trade
• GTRI aims to create high-quality and jargon-free outputs for governments and industry from the perspective of development and poverty reduction.
• Mr Ajay Srivastava is the Founder of GTRI.

What is the World Trade Organization?

• The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that deals with the rules of trade between countries.
• It was founded in 1995 as a successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which, since 1948, had governed trade rules until the establishment of the WTO.
• The WTO describes its principal function as being to provide a forum for its members to negotiate on trade issues.
• It operates a body of rules in the form of WTO agreements.
• It provides a dispute settlement mechanism (DSM) to resolve disagreements over the rules between members.
• The WTO has many roles:
  • It operates a global system of trade rules, acts as a forum for negotiating trade agreements, settles trade disputes between its members and it supports the needs of developing countries.
• All major decisions are made by the WTO's member governments:
  • either by ministers (who usually meet at least every two years) or by their ambassadors or delegates (who meet regularly in Geneva).
• Decision-making:
  • All major decisions within the WTO are made by its member governments.
  • The top decision-making body is the Ministerial Conference, which typically convenes every two years.
  • Day-to-day decisions are overseen by the General Council, which meets regularly in Geneva.

• Membership
  • The WTO has over 160 members, representing 98% of world trade.
  • Joining the WTO requires aligning economic and trade policies with its rules and negotiating entry terms with the existing membership.
• Budget:
  • The WTO derives most of the income for its annual budget from contributions by its members.
  • These contributions are based on a formula that takes into account each member's share of international trade.
• Director-General:
  • Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala is the seventh Director-General of the WTO.
  • She took office on 1 March 2021, becoming the first woman and the first African to serve as Director-General.
  • Her term of office will expire on 31 August 2025.
• The primary purpose of the WTO is to open trade for the benefit of all.

About the WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB):

• The WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) deals with disputes between WTO members.
• It was created in Article 2 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU) administers World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement proceedings.
• The DSB consists of all WTO members, usually represented by Ambassadors or equivalent.
• It makes decisions on trade disputes between governments that are adjudicated by the Organization.
• The DSB has the sole authority to establish “Panels” of experts to consider the case and to accept or reject the Panels’ findings or the results of an appeal.
• The DSB uses a special decision procedure known as "reverse consensus" or "consensus against" that makes it almost certain that the Panel recommendations in a dispute will be accepted.
• The process requires that the recommendations of the Panel should be adopted "unless" there is a consensus of the members against adoption.
• The DSB monitors the implementation of the rulings and recommendations and has the power to authorize retaliation when a country does not comply with a ruling.

Why is the WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) Inoperative?

• The WTO's dispute settlement system faces a critical challenge as its appeals mechanism is currently non-operational.
• The root cause lies in the United States objection to the appointment of new judges to the Appellate Body, citing concerns about judicial overreach.
• Consequently, a significant number of panel reports are left in limbo, with appeals going unanswered and disputes lingering without resolution.
• This impasse creates a formidable obstacle for WTO members seeking to enforce their obligations through complaints against measures they perceive as violations.

Conclusion

The WTO's dispute resolution mechanism grapples with a formidable crisis, rendering it largely nonfunctional due to the U.S.'s opposition to new Appellate Body judges. This impasse leaves disputes unresolved, severely limiting members' ability to enforce obligations. As the organization grapples with this crisis, finding a resolution becomes paramount to restore the efficacy of international trade agreements and uphold the WTO's core principles.

Why is it in the News?

As India remoulds its scientific establishment, the utility of scientists being given administrative tasks needs to be questioned.

Context:

• Sustained economic progress which can satisfy national ambition is invariably fuelled by scientific advances translated into deployable technologies.
• This has been the inevitable global experience since the onset of the Industrial Revolution.
• The government is overhauling India’s science establishment, which includes setting up the new National Research Foundation (NRF) and restructuring the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
• In this scenario, a frank assessment of the current administrative ability to simultaneously optimise Indian science’s efficiency and resilience is necessary.

What are the Problems with India’s Scientific Advancement?

India has a long and rich history of scientific innovation. However, in recent years, the country's science management has come under increasing scrutiny. There are several problems with India's science management including:

• Lack of Funding in Research and Development (R&D): One of the most pressing issues is a lack of funding.
  • India spends a relatively small percentage of its GDP on research and development, compared to other developed countries.
    • For instance, India allocates only about 0.7% of its GDP to R&D, a considerably lower figure compared to global leaders like the United States (3.5%) and China (2.4%).
  • This lack of funding has led to a brain drain of talented scientists, who are leaving India in search of better opportunities.
• Budgetary Challenges: The modest commitment to R&D stems from broader budget constraints, competing priorities, and a historical emphasis on immediate socio-economic needs.
  • This presents a challenge in fostering a robust scientific ecosystem on a limited budget.
• Lack of Coordination: Another problem with India's science management is a lack of coordination.
  • There are many different government agencies and departments that are involved in science and technology, but there is often a lack of communication and cooperation between them.
  • This can lead to duplication of effort and a waste of resources.
• Inadequacies in Budget Allocation by Scientific Administration: The current scientific administration struggles to identify and invest in high-impact projects.
  • For instance, in 2022, the Indian Space Research Organisation ranked eighth in space launches, lagging in key technologies.
  • Similar setbacks are evident in nuclear energy, genomics, robotics, and artificial intelligence.
• Lack of Strategic Planning and Execution: Beyond expenditure, the challenge extends to strategic planning and execution of scientific projects.
  • Failure to adapt swiftly to emerging technologies and allocate resources judiciously has resulted in India falling behind in crucial fields.
• Inconsistent Long-Term Funding: A major concern is the absence of consistent long-term funding for vital projects, especially when faced with occasional setbacks.
  • Steady funding, despite occasional failures, is crucial for a resilient and effective scientific management system.
• Finally, India's science management is often criticized for being too bureaucratic. The process of getting funding for research projects can be long and complex, and it can be difficult for scientists to get the support they need to succeed.

The Role of Senior Scientists in India’s Science Administration:

• Diverse Responsibilities Impacting Focus: Senior scientists in India often juggle multiple responsibilities, including academic pursuits, administrative duties, and leadership positions.
  • This dispersion of focus can lead to inefficiencies and a lack of dedicated attention to critical administrative tasks.
• Lack of Administrative Skills: The assumption that successful scientists can seamlessly transition into effective administrators overlooks the distinct skills required for scientific work versus administration.
  • Managing institutions, allocating resources, and making organizational decisions demand specific skills not necessarily possessed by accomplished scientists.
• Insufficient Training for Administrative Roles: Inadequate training makes it challenging for scientists to excel in administrative roles.
  • Tasks like metric selection, conflict resolution, and setting priorities require skills not inherently developed through scientific training.
  • Administration involves translating policy into outcomes, a skill not typically prioritized in scientific training.
• Conflicts of Interest and Quality Control Issues: The dual roles of scientists as academics and administrators can result in conflicts of interest within institutions.
  • Academic rivalries, bureaucratic challenges, and compromised quality control may emerge, leading to issues like plagiarism, unethical publication practices, and compromised scientific outcomes.
• Nationwide Transfer System Absence: The absence of a nationwide transfer system for scientists and science administrators exacerbates issues such as competition and egotism.
  • The lack of mobility within the system can contribute to internal divisions and hinder the progress of scientific careers and projects.
• Internal Control Challenges: Allowing individuals within the system to regulate it can lead to clear drawbacks, impacting the impartiality and effectiveness of science administration in India.

Challenges in India's Science Administration: A Historical Perspective

• Concentration of High-End Equipment: Economic constraints post-independence led India to concentrate on high-end scientific equipment, notably in institutions like the IITs.
  • This concentration birthed gatekeepers, controlling access to critical resources and establishing a hierarchical structure where a few institutions wielded disproportionate influence.
• Gatekeepers and Institutional Captures Concept: Over time, these gatekeepers solidified their positions, accumulating power, government support, and institutional control.
  • This system created an environment where young scientists navigated a complex web of influence, paying tributes to those controlling vital resources.
• Impact on Scientific Careers: The gatekeeping system not only influenced resource access but also shaped career trajectories.
  • The nexus between institutional power and individual careers became pivotal, with appointments, awards, and international recognition often tied to maintaining favourable relations with gatekeepers.
• Normalization of Unethical Practices: The gatekeeping system has normalized unethical practices within Indian science.
  • High plagiarism rates, paid publications in questionable journals, and undisclosed dealings for government funding have become ingrained, compromising the ethical standards of scientific research.
• Stifling Genuine Scientific Outcomes: This erosion of ethical standards doesn't just compromise research quality but stifles genuine scientific outcomes.
  • Scientists in conflict with this system face hurdles, hindering promising careers and perpetuating a culture where personal connections often outweigh merit.

A Comparative Analysis of the U.S. Model and Indian Science Administration:

• U.S. Model: In the U.S., scientists chosen for administrative roles are identified early in their careers and undergo targeted training for managerial tasks.
  • The emphasis is on maintaining a distinct separation between scientific pursuits and administrative responsibilities.
• Indian Scenario: In contrast, India's science administration traditionally involves senior scientists taking up administrative roles without a clear separation between scientific and administrative functions.
  • This integrated approach poses challenges, as the skill sets needed for effective scientific research often differ significantly from those crucial for efficient administration.

Conclusion

As India pursues economic and strategic progress, challenges in science management hinder its research and development, causing a lag in innovation compared to other developed nations. To remedy this, increasing funding for research and development is crucial, along with enhancing coordination among government agencies and streamlining the funding process for research projects. By addressing these issues, India has the potential to emerge as a global leader in science and technology, bringing substantial benefits to its economy and society.

Why is it in the News?

With antimicrobial resistance on the rise, the Union Health Ministry has urged doctors to write down the exact reason when prescribing antibiotics.

New Summary:

• The Union Health Ministry urged all doctors in medical colleges and medical associations to make it a mandatory practice to "write indication/reason/justification" while prescribing antibiotics.
• The Director General of Health Services also appealed to all pharmacists to strictly implement Schedule H and H1 of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules and stop the over-the-counter sale of antibiotics.
• Antimicrobials are listed under Schedule H and H1 of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, both of which are categories of medicines that cannot be sold without a prescription.

What is Antimicrobial Resistance?

• According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), antimicrobial resistance occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicines.
• This makes infections harder to treat, increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness and death.
  • As a result, the medicines become ineffective and infections persist in the body, increasing the risk of spreading to others.
• AMR affects countries in all regions and at all income levels.
  • Its drivers and consequences are exacerbated by poverty and inequality, and low- and middle-income countries are most affected as per WHO.
• Currently, AMR is one of the top global public health threats facing humanity.
  • It is estimated that bacterial AMR was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and 4.95 million deaths were associated with drug-resistant infections.
• According to the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), 1.25 million lives were lost to drug resistance in 2019.
• India has one of the highest rates of antimicrobial resistance worldwide.
  • Despite being prescription drugs, antibiotics are commonly available over-the-counter (OTC) at retail pharmacies.
• In a recent survey, conducted by the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) under the Union Health Ministry, over half of the antibiotics prescribed in the country cause antimicrobial resistance.
• Treatment failures also lead to longer periods of infectivity and the prohibitively high cost of second-line drugs may result in failure to treat these diseases in many individuals.

Scenarios in Which Antimicrobials are Most Commonly Misused?

• There are two common scenarios in which antimicrobials are misused or overused even by doctors.
  • One is when they cannot make a diagnosis on whether an infection is caused by a bacteria or virus and prescribe antibiotics to err on the side of caution.
  • Two, when they know it is a bacterial infection but want to avoid secondary infection.
    • This is where antibiotics can be conserved because very few people get such secondary bacterial infections.
• In the case of a serious patient, who is admitted to the hospital, broad-spectrum antibiotics may be prescribed for 48 hours, during which they can be tested for which pathogen is causing the infection.
  • The antibiotics needed to be switched after that.
• Prescription for antimicrobials before and after a procedure or surgery is another way that antibiotics are commonly overused.
  • Just a single dose of antibiotic 60 to 120 minutes before surgery is enough to prevent surgical site infections.
• However, doctors end up prescribing antibiotics for seven to 14 days.
  • If proper sterilization of equipment, and preparation of the surgical site are done, infections cannot happen.
  • Shaving the surgical site before surgery should be avoided because it can lead to abrasions that can get infected

The Result of Antimicrobial Overuse and Misuse?

• Common infections are not curable anymore.
• Tuberculosis and urinary tract infections have become multi-drug resistant.
• In hospitals, infections are resulting in longer treatment times with the use of costlier and more toxic antibiotics.
  • Despite all efforts and successful surgeries, people are dying

Factors contributing to Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR):

• Unnecessary Prescriptions: In many cases, antibiotics are prescribed when they are not necessary or are not used correctly.
  • This can lead to the survival and proliferation of resistant bacteria.
• Agricultural use: The use and overuse of antimicrobials in agriculture, including to promote growth and prevent disease in livestock, is also a major contributor to the development and spread of AMR.
• Selective pressure: In the presence of antimicrobials, microbes that carry resistance genes can survive, replicate, and quickly dominate the microbial population.
• Mutation: Rapid microbial reproduction allows for swift-evolution, and mutations during replication may aid individual microbes in surviving antimicrobial exposure.
• Inappropriate use: Unnecessary and injudicious use of antibiotic fixed dose combinations may lead to the emergence of bacterial strains resistant to multiple antibiotics.
• State of the Environment: There is growing evidence that the environment plays a key role in the development, transmission and spread of AMR. Its proliferation is linked to the triple planetary crisis of climate change, nature and biodiversity loss, pollution and waste.
  • For example, higher temperatures, storms and floods can fuel the spread of bacterial, viral, parasitic, fungal and vector-borne diseases.
  • Severe weather events can also cause wastewater and sewage to overwhelm treatment plants, allowing untreated sewage rich in antimicrobial-resistant microbes to contaminate surrounding communities.
  • As well, wastewater laced with medicines, including that from animal production facilities, hospitals and pharmaceutical companies, can feed drug resistance.

Measures Taken by the Government of India to Address AMR:

• National Action Plan on AMR: The National Action Plan on Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR) was launched in 2017.
  • Emphasis is placed on a One Health approach, involving various stakeholder ministries/departments.
• AMR Surveillance and Research Network (AMRSN): ICMR has set up the AMR Surveillance and Research Network (AMRSN) comprising 30 tertiary care hospitals, both private and government.
  • Its purpose is to generate evidence and capture trends and patterns of drug-resistant infections in the country.
• Research and International Collaboration: Initiatives by ICMR aim to develop new drugs and medicines through international collaborations.
  • This is intended to strengthen medical research in the field of AMR.
• Red Line Campaign: The Union health ministry initiated the "Red Line Campaign."
  • It urges people not to use medicines marked with a red vertical line, including antibiotics, without a doctor’s prescription.
  •  The campaign aims to discourage unnecessary prescription and over-the-counter sales of antibiotics, addressing drug resistance for diseases like TB, malaria, urinary tract infections, and HIV.

Way Forward

• Antimicrobials have saved countless lives and are essential to modern medicine but we need to use them more judiciously.
• Healthcare professionals should only prescribe antibiotics when necessary and at the right dosage and duration.
• The use and overuse of antibiotics in agriculture must also be limited.
• Countries must adopt the One Health approach, which recognizes that the health of people, animals, plants and the environment are interdependent.
• Preventative measures, such as improving water, sanitation and hygiene, as well as putting in place strong international and national regulatory frameworks to enforce controls on the sale and distribution of antibiotics, will go a long way in reducing AMR.

Conclusion

AMR is a global problem; therefore, international cooperation among nations is essential. Developing multi-stakeholder national action plans is key. Countries must also work together on strategies, information sharing and surveillance of antimicrobial use and resistance. However, fixing the AMR crisis is not just dependent on governments alone. Pharmaceutical companies, the chemical industry, regulators, municipal governments, human and animal healthcare professionals and students, scientists and the public all have a role to play.

Why is it in the News?

A seven-judge constitution bench headed by Chief Justice of India D Y Chandrachud will start to hear the case on the sub-categorisation among Scheduled Castes (SCs) from next week.

News Summary:

• The Union government has established a five-member committee of Secretaries, led by the Cabinet Secretary.
• The committee is tasked with evaluating and devising an equitable approach for the distribution of benefits, programs, and initiatives to the most disadvantaged communities among the 1,200 Scheduled Castes across the nation.
  • These communities have often been overshadowed by relatively more advanced and dominant ones.

Key aspects of the committee include:

• Purpose: The committee will focus solely on strategies such as special initiatives and directing existing schemes toward marginalized communities.
• Mandate: It strictly refrains from delving into matters of reservation or determining the SC quota for employment and education, as these issues are considered sub-judice.
• Composition: The committee comprises Secretaries from the Home Ministry, Law Ministry, Tribal Affairs Ministry, and Social Justice Ministry.

About Schedule Caste (SC):

• Scheduled castes are those castes/races in the country that suffer from extreme social, educational and economic backwardness arising out of the age-old practice of untouchability and certain others on account of lack of infrastructure facilities and geographical isolation, and who need special consideration for safeguarding their interests and for their accelerated socio-economic development.
• These communities were notified as Scheduled Castes as per provisions contained in Clause 1 of Article 341 of the Constitution.
• Article 341 of the Indian Constitution grants the President the authority to declare certain castes and classes as Scheduled Castes in a state or union territory.
  • It also empowers Parliament to include or exclude any caste or tribe from this list.
• Article 342 of the Constitution defines "Scheduled Castes" as castes, races, tribes, or parts of, or groups within such castes, races, or tribes as deemed under Article 341.

What is the Sub Categorisation of Caste?

• Sub Categorisation of Caste involves the additional classification of broader caste groups into sub-groups, considering various criteria.
• The call for Caste Sub-Categorization has emerged as certain castes and communities aim for acknowledgement and specific privileges based on distinctive characteristics, historical backgrounds, or socio-economic status.
• This approach aims to acknowledge and address the diversity within larger caste groups, targeting specific sub-groups perceived as socially and economically disadvantaged for more tailored benefits.

The Legal Aspect of Caste Sub-Categorization:

• Over the past two decades, several states, including Punjab, Bihar, and Tamil Nadu, have attempted to introduce state-level reservation laws to sub-categorize Scheduled Castes (SCs).
  • However, all these plans are currently stuck in the courts as the Supreme Court forms a larger Constitution Bench to make a decision.
• E. V. Chinnaiah v State of Andhra Pradesh (2004): In this case, the apex court determined that once a community is included in the Presidential List for Scheduled Castes under Article 341 of the Constitution, they become part of a single, larger class of people for reservation purposes.
  • The Bench emphasised that the state lacked the legislative power to create sub-classifications within this single class, as it would violate the Right to Equality.
  • According to the Constitution, only Parliament can make these lists, and the President can notify them.
• In 2020, another Supreme Court bench, consisting of five members, in the Davinder Singh case unanimously declared that sub-categorization is constitutionally valid and suggested that a larger constitutional bench rule on the matter.

Sub-Categorization of Scheduled Castes (SCs):

• In the Telangana Assembly election, PM Modi pledged to address the demand for sub-categorization of Scheduled Castes (SCs).
  • The Madiga community, the most populous among SC communities in Telangana, raised this concern, asserting that their representation share was being overshadowed by another SC community, the Malas.
• Since 1994, the Madiga community has advocated for the sub-categorization of SCs, leading to the establishment of the Justice P. Ramachandra Raju Commission in 1996 and a National Commission in 2007.
  • Both commissions concluded that there are potential ways to resolve this issue.
• Currently, a seven-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court is gearing up to commence hearings on this matter.
  • The Supreme Court will determine whether sub-categorization among SCs and Scheduled Tribes is permissible.
  • The focus of the hearing is on the constitutionality of sub-categorization among SCs for breaking up reservations in jobs and education set aside for them.
• Simultaneously, the government panel will explore "other ways to address their grievances.

Debate Over Sub-Categorization within SCs:

• Supporting Arguments: One key argument favouring the sub-categorization of Scheduled Castes (SCs) revolves around the existing disparities among these communities.
  • The contention is that graded inequalities persist, with certain SC communities having limited access to essential facilities.
  • Consequently, the more forward communities within the SCs tend to consistently benefit, potentially sidelining the more backward ones.
  • To address this, proponents argue for sub-categorization, providing separate reservations for the more disadvantaged communities within the broader SC category.
• Opposing Perspectives: Arguments against sub-categorization assert that allocating separate reservations within these categories might not effectively tackle the root cause of the issue.
  • Critics argue that the primary aim of sub-categorization was to ensure representation at all levels.
  • However, even if reserved positions are available at higher levels, the most backward SCs may lack sufficient candidates to be considered.
  • Therefore, it is suggested that existing government schemes and benefits should first reach these underserved sections before contemplating sub-categorization.
• Additionally, legal experts emphasize the importance of concrete data to support sub-categorization.
• They highlight the need for a comprehensive caste census, encompassing each community and sub-community along with their socio-economic data.
• According to these experts, a caste census provides the empirical basis required for the government to justify sub-categorization, determining the specific additional share of benefits needed by each community.

What is the Union Government’s Stand?

• In 2005, the Union government explored the legal aspects of sub-categorization within Scheduled Castes (SCs).
• The then Attorney General of India suggested that this could be a viable option only if unquestionable evidence indicated its necessity.
• During this period, both the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) and the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) expressed the view that a constitutional amendment might not be essential.
• They pointed out that Article 16(4) of the Constitution already empowered states to formulate special laws for any backward classes deemed under-represented.
• Furthermore, they emphasized the urgency of ensuring the prioritized implementation of existing schemes and benefits rather than merely allocating a quota within the existing quota.

Why is it in the News?

The share of India’s population living in multidimensional poverty is estimated to have fallen to 11.28 per cent in 2022-23 from 29.17 per cent in 2013-14, according to a discussion paper released by NITI Aayog on Monday.

Context:

• According to the NITI Aayog’s discussion paper, multidimensional poverty in India declined from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23, with about 24.82 crore people moving out of this bracket during this period.
• The national multidimensional poverty measures simultaneous deprivations across three equally weighted dimensions of health, education, and standard of living that are represented by 12 sustainable development goals-aligned indicators, according to NITI Aayog.

Key Highlights of the MPI in India Since 2005-2006:

• Overall Decline in Multidimensional Poverty: As per the NITI Aayog discussion paper, India's multidimensional poverty has decreased from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23.
  • The trend signifies the upliftment of 24.82 crore people from this bracket during the specified period.
• State-wise Decline: "Uttar Pradesh registered the largest decline in the number of poor with 5.94 crore people escaping multidimensional poverty during the last nine years followed by:
  • Bihar at 3.77 crore
  • Madhya Pradesh at 2.30 crore and
  • Rajasthan at 1.87 crore.
• NITI Aayog's approach to measuring multidimensional poverty involved considering 12 indicators aligned with the sustainable development goals.
  • These indicators encompass crucial aspects such as nutrition, child and adolescent mortality rates, maternal health, educational attainment, access to basic amenities like clean cooking fuel, sanitation, safe drinking water, electricity, and housing, as well as possession of assets and bank accounts.
• "Significant initiatives covering all dimensions of poverty have led to 24.82 crore individuals escaping multidimensional poverty in the last 9 years.
  • As a result, India is likely to achieve its SDG target of halving multidimensional poverty well before 2030.
• The report emphasized impactful programs, such as Poshan Abhiyan and Anemia Mukt Bharat, which have markedly improved accessibility to healthcare services, significantly reducing deprivation.
  • Managing one of the globe's largest food security initiatives, the targeted Public Distribution System (PDS) under the National Food Security Act encompasses 81.35 crore beneficiaries, ensuring the distribution of food grains to both rural and urban populations.
• "The government's persistent dedication and resolute commitment to enhancing the lives of the most vulnerable and deprived have been instrumental in this accomplishment.

What is Multidimensional Poverty?

• Poverty can have several negative effects at once. Some of these include inadequate nutrition or health, a lack of power or clean water, low-quality employment, or insufficient education.
• The true nature of poverty cannot be fully captured by concentrating only on one aspect, such as income.
• Multidimensional Poverty, as a metric, goes beyond income or consumption alone.
  • It encompasses deprivations in education and access to essential infrastructure, considering factors beyond the monetary aspect.
  • The measurement is conducted at the $2.15 international poverty line, as defined by the World Bank (in 2017 purchasing power parity terms), ensuring a comprehensive assessment of poverty that extends beyond monetary value.

What is the National Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)?

• Prepared By: NITI Aayog
• Objective: The aim is to gauge poverty across various dimensions, complementing existing statistics based on per capita consumption expenditure.
• Purpose of the National MPI: Provides an enhanced, high-level overview of poverty at the national level.
  • Acts as a complement to monetary poverty measures.
  • Furnishes information crucial for shaping effective policy initiatives.
  • The MPI is founded on the individual or household profile of overlapping or "joint" deprivations experienced by each person.
• Key Features: Serves as an incentive for leaving no one behind and prioritizing the most marginalized.
  • Adaptable to the national context and maintains transparency.
• Credible Methodology: India's national MPI employs a methodology developed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), aligning with the globally accepted and robust standards used in the publication of the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index.
• Three Macro Dimensions: The National MPI is structured around three macro dimensions, each with specific indicators and weights, outlined below –

Significance of the MPI:

• Crucial Public Policy Instrument: The establishment of India's National MPI introduces a pivotal public policy instrument that monitors multidimensional poverty, facilitating evidence-based and targeted interventions to ensure inclusivity and prevent any individuals from being left behind.
• Assesses the Efficacy of Multi-Sectoral Interventions: It offers valuable insights into the effectiveness of multi-sectoral interventions aimed at addressing diverse facets of poverty.
• Encompasses Diverse Deprivations: Notably, functioning as a metric for multidimensional poverty, it captures the myriad and simultaneous deprivations experienced by households.
• Comprehensive Analysis Across All Tiers: This report conducts a thorough analysis of the headcount ratio and intensity of multidimensional poverty, encompassing national, State/UT, and district levels.

Conclusion

The National MPI in India has been conceived as an all-encompassing tool, expediting purpose-driven initiatives to gauge and systematically eliminate multidimensional poverty. The dimensions of the index have demonstrated their efficacy in identifying and facilitating precise policy interventions aimed at achieving targeted goals.

NITI Aayog

• NITI Aayog, established on January 1, 2015, succeeded the Planning Commission with a distinctive focus on a 'Bottom-Up' approach.
• Embracing the vision of 'Maximum Governance, Minimum Government' and echoing the ethos of 'Cooperative Federalism,' NITI Aayog serves as a dynamic institution facilitating collaborative decision-making.

Functional Components: NITI Aayog operates through two principal hubs-

• Team India Hub: This hub is a crucial interface, fostering effective communication and collaboration between the states and the central government.
  • It plays a pivotal role in aligning the diverse interests of different regions in the spirit of cooperative federalism.
• Knowledge and Innovation Hub: This hub is dedicated to enhancing the intellectual capacity of NITI Aayog. It functions as a think tank, driving innovative ideas and knowledge creation to inform policy decisions and contribute to the overall development agenda.

INDICES of NITI Aayog:

• Composite Water Management Index
• District Hospital Index
• Export Preparedness Index
• Global Innovation Index
• India Innovation Index
• Multidimensional Poverty Index
• School Education Quality Index
• SDG India Index
• State Energy Index
• State Health Index

Why is it in the News?

Maldivian President Mohamed Muizzu has asked India to withdraw its military personnel from his country by March 15, a senior official said in Male on Sunday, nearly two months after Maldives sought their removal.

Context:

• Maldives President Mohamed Muizzu has asked India to withdraw its military personnel from the Indian Ocean archipelago nation by mid-March.
• A high-level core group, set by both nations, to negotiate the withdrawal of troops held its first meeting at the Foreign Ministry in Male on Sunday with Indian High Commissioner Munu Mahawar present.
• President Muizzu had, during his presidential campaign, asserted that he would accomplish the removal of Indian troops from the Maldives, and had made a formal request to India to withdraw its military personnel soon after assuming office.

How many Indian troops are in the Maldives?

• India does not have a large military presence in the Maldives contrary to claims by “India Out” protesters that thousands of Indian troops were stationed.
• There are only 88 Indian military personnel in the Maldives, according to the latest government figures.
  • They have been based there for more than a decade.

What are Indian troops doing in the Maldives?

• India and Maldives have been allies and defence cooperation has been a crucial part of the relationship.
• Indian soldiers have been training Maldivian troops in combat and reconnaissance and helping in rescue operations.
• According to the terms of the bilateral agreement between the two nations, Indian officers were sent to train the Maldivian National Defence Force.
• The Indian troops are unarmed and mostly assist the Maldivian government with search and evacuation operations, (and) medical evacuation operations.
• From January 2019 until late 2023, 495 lives have been saved because of medical evacuations and special training conducted by the Indian personnel in the Maldives with the help of two helicopters gifted by India.
• Also, at least 50 joint search and rescue missions have been conducted.

Have Indian troops conducted military operationss in the Maldives?

• Yes, Indian troops conducted one military operation in the Maldives in November 1998 called “Operation Cactus”.
• A group of Maldivians led by businessman Abdullah Luthufi attempted a coup to overthrow the government of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom.
  • They had the backing of Sri Lanka’s People’s Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE), a Tamil secessionist group.
• At least 80 mercenaries of the group entered Male on 3 November 1988 on board a hijacked Sri Lankan fighter.
  • They captured key infrastructure – airports, ports, television and radio stations.
  • While Gayoom was escorted to a safe house, the mercenaries took several hostages including ministers.
• As the situation escalated in the Maldives, India’s chief of army staff General VN Sharma got a call from the foreign service officer at the Prime Minister’s Office.
  • He asked if the Indian army could help as there was an emergency in the Maldives.
• Indis agreed and three armed forces – the army, navy, and air force came to the neighbour's rescue.
  • Two hostages were among 19 killed during Operation Cactus.
  • The rest of the casualties were mercenaries.
• India, thus, helped in thwarting a major political crisis in the Indian Ocean Region.

Anti-India sentiments among a section of the Maldives’ population:

• In 2020, the “India Out” campaign started as on-ground protests in the Maldives which later spread widely across social media platforms.
  • By the second half of 2021, it had developed into an active and visible political campaign.
• The supporters of the campaign had claimed that it had been started to protest against what they called Indian military presence in the country.
• They had actively targeted all aspects of India-Maldives bilateral relations.
• During the International Yoga Day celebration in 2022, organised by the Indian High Commission in the capital Male which was held at the Galolhu Stadium was disrupted by a group around 150 of protesters.
  • The mob attacked participants practising yoga and vandalised property.

What are the major factors behind the fear and suspicion?

• The controversy started after two Dhruv Advanced Light Helicopters were given by India to the Maldives in 2010 and 2015.
  • These were used for search and rescue operations, maritime weather surveillance and for airlifting patients.
  • However, some in Progressive Party of Maldives  (PPM) hinted that India was attempting to create a military presence in Maldives as these were military choppers.
• The other causes of concern are the perceived lack of transparency in dealings with India under the rule of Ibrahim Mohamed Solih and the reliance on India for maritime security.
• UTF Harbour Project: Under this agreement, India was to develop and maintain a coastguard harbour and dockyard at Uthuru Thilafalhu, a strategically located atoll near the capital Malé.
  • Sections of Maldivian media had speculated that the UTF project would be turned into an Indian naval base.

India-Maldives Bilateral Relations:

• India and Maldives share strong ties encompassing ethnic, linguistic, cultural, religious, and commercial dimensions, fostering close and multi-faceted relations.
• The historical trajectory of their relationship is marked by significant milestones:

• Diplomatic Relations: India, recognizing Maldives' independence in 1965, established diplomatic ties promptly.
  • During the 1988 coup attempt, India's rapid intervention under Operation Cactus solidified trust and laid the groundwork for enduring bilateral relations.
  • Timely assistance during natural calamities, such as the 2004 Tsunami and the 2014 water crisis, showcased India's commitment to the well-being of the Maldives.
  • The Swift dispatch of medical aid in 2020 during a measles outbreak demonstrated India's continuous support.
• Security and Defence Cooperation: A comprehensive Defence Action Plan was signed in April 2016, consolidating defence collaboration.
  • India plays a crucial role in training the Maldivian National Defence Force, meeting 70% of their training needs over the last decade.
  • Annual Defence Cooperation Dialogues, initiated in July 2016, underscore the strategic partnership.
• Development Cooperation: India's significant developmental contributions include projects like:
  • Indira Gandhi Memorial Hospital
  • Maldives Institute of Technical Education (now Maldives Polytechnic)
  • India-Maldives Faculty of Hospitality & Tourism Studies
  • Technology Adoption Programme in the Education Sector
  • National College for Police and Law Enforcement
  • Infrastructure & Connectivity Projects under Exim Bank Line of Credit ($800 million)
• Economic and Trade Relations: India emerged as Maldives' second-largest trade partner in 2022, with bilateral trade totalling $501.82 million.
  • In November 2022, India provided financial assistance of US$ 100 million to address economic challenges.
  • The RBI-Maldives Monetary Authority Currency Swap Agreement in December 2022 further strengthened economic ties.
• Tourism and Indian Community: Indians constitute the largest group of tourists in the Maldives, with over 200,000 visitors in 2023.
  • The Indian community, the second-largest expatriate group, contributes significantly to various sectors, with approximately 22,000 individuals.
  • Notably, 25% of doctors and teachers in the Maldives are Indian nationals.
  • The India-Maldives relationship continues to evolve, reflecting shared values, mutual interests, and a commitment to fostering prosperity and stability in the region.

What does President Muizzu want?

• Muizzu is a pro-China leader and wants Indian troops to leave the country.
• This was among the pre-poll promises he made during his campaign.
• His main theme was about an alleged threat to the Maldives’ sovereignty by some Indian military personnel on an island, part of his party’s years-long “India out” strategy.
• After his just-concluded visit to China, President Muizzu, announced plans to reduce the country’s dependency on India, including securing imports of essential food commodities and medicine and consumables from other countries.
• Maldives is also reportedly reviewing more than 100 bilateral agreements with India signed by the previous government.

Way Forward

The trajectory of India-Maldives relations is shaped by evolving geopolitical dynamics, leadership shifts, and shared regional interests. India's steadfast commitment to the Maldives involves going beyond customary measures to foster a comprehensive partnership. Any abrupt actions jeopardizing this carefully cultivated alliance would potentially inflict more harm on the Maldives than on India. Recognizing and proactively addressing these challenges, both nations can skillfully navigate the intricacies of their relationship, paving the way for a more robust, resilient, and mutually advantageous partnership in the future.

Why is it in the News?

As the union government constituted the 16th Finance Commission (FC), experts recommend including variables related to climate change, beyond forest cover.

Background:

• In the contemporary era, India has gained prominence as a key participant in global initiatives aimed at addressing climate change and promoting increased forest coverage.
• This engagement has not only positively impacted environmental sustainability but has also strengthened the adaptability of communities and ecosystems.
• In addressing the hurdles presented by climate change, the concept of fiscal federalism, with a specific focus on the role of the Finance Commission (FC), has emerged as a crucial factor in encouraging states to prioritize conservation endeavours.

Role of the Finance Commission in Fiscal Federalism and Forest Conservation:

• Promoting Conservation Initiatives: The Finance Commission's role has been pivotal in actively promoting and incentivizing state-led efforts towards forest conservation.
• Through dedicated fund allocations, the Commission acknowledges the inherent connection between vibrant forests, sustainable ecosystems, and the overall national well-being.
• Financial backing serves as a catalyst, motivating states to prioritize conservation endeavours while safeguarding their economic interests.
• Balancing Revenue Capacities and Expenditure Needs: Beyond their biodiversity significance, forest resources represent valuable economic assets for states.
• The Finance Commission recognizes that preserving existing forests and augmenting forest cover density directly impact the revenue capacities and expenditure requirements of states.
• Finding an equilibrium between economically exploiting forest resources and ensuring their conservation becomes essential for achieving both environmental sustainability and economic prosperity.

Previous Instances of Finance Commission Initiatives in Forest Conservation:

• The Finance Commission’s formulae for tax sharing have evolved since the first one, constituted in 1951, for the period 1952-1957.
  • Since then, FCs have been constituted at intervals every five years with the 16th one currently being implemented.
• Initially, the formula for distributing tax among states respectively, known as horizontal devolution, gave significant weightage, around 80% to 90%, to the population of the states, meaning states with higher populations were given a higher share of the tax.
  • Then, the 7th FC drastically reduced the weightage assigned to the population to 25% and increased the weightage given to equity, in which income, land area, and sometimes infrastructure and fiscal discipline too, played a significant role in determining how much each state would receive from the central government.
• Similarly, there have been changes in determining the funds allocation for environmental initiatives.
  • The 12th FC (2005-10) dedicated Rs 1,000 crore for forest conservation across states.
  • The 13th FC (2010-15) enhanced this allocation to Rs 5,000 crore.
    • However, it is important to note that these grants comprised less than 0.05% of the total funds transferred from the central government to the states.
• Ecological Fiscal Transfers (EFT) – where public revenue is shared based on ecological indicators – were introduced in 2015 with the 14th FC which incorporated forest cover as a criterion for tax devolution, allocating it a weightage of 7.5% in the distribution formula for the tax-transfer during the period 2015-16 to 2019-2020.
  • The 14th FC (2015 to 2020) considered several recommendations and replaced the grants with a more prominent placement for the forestry sector — it dedicated 7.5 per cent of the divisible central tax pool to ecology and forests.
    • The allocation was based on the forest cover in each state.
• The 15th FC (2021–22 to 2025–26) extended this share to 10 per cent.
• Having mobilised and distributed over Rs 4.5 lakh crore to states against not only their forest cover but also forest density, the 15th FC effectively became the largest payment for ecosystem services (PES) systems in the world.
  • The Commission also gave grants to combat air pollution.
• The fiscal transfers that are earmarked for a specific department or programme have traditionally been much smaller than fiscal transfers to the general state budget.
  • For example, the specific-purpose grants for forestry under the 12th and 13th FC were a fraction of the general-purpose transfers (those not assigned to specific purposes) that followed under the 14th and 15th FC.
• The formula-based finance commission transfers are unconditional and are not tied to the Department of Forest or Ecology.
• Whether there is a need for conditions to ensure the funds are invested in the environment, at least in principle, the enticement of receiving larger general-purpose transfers should motivate states to invest in forest protection.
• Since 2005, the central government has been sharing annual forest grants with states.
  • These grants serve as both compensation and incentive mechanisms.
  • However, it remains unclear to what extent these grants have contributed to the increased forest cover in the states.

Addressing Complexities in the Intersection of Fiscal Federalism and Environmental Conservation:

• Harmonizing Conservation Costs and Economic Imperatives: Balancing conservation expenses with economic necessities becomes challenging, particularly for states grappling with financial constraints.
  • The substantial opportunity costs linked with forest preservation may strain state budgets, presenting a hurdle in garnering widespread commitment.
• Innovating Financing Models for Conservation: Traditional financing models for conservation may prove inadequate or unsustainable in the long term.
  • Overreliance on grants can create dependencies, hindering the development of self-sustaining mechanisms for conservation.
• Addressing Climate-Induced Economic Vulnerabilities: The repercussions of climate change pose considerable threats to economic stability, especially for states heavily dependent on climate-sensitive sectors.
  • Unpredictable weather patterns, floods, and forest fires can intensify existing vulnerabilities.
• Strategically Allocating Resources: The Finance Commission encounters the intricate task of strategically allocating resources to maximize both environmental and economic advantages.
  • Ensuring targeted funding for critical conservation initiatives while aligning with state development objectives demands a nuanced approach.
• Integrating Environmental Goals with Fiscal Capacity: States may grapple with aligning their environmental objectives with fiscal capabilities, potentially creating a gap between aspirations and implementation.
• Ensuring Equitable Participation: A potential risk exists where states with greater fiscal capacities may disproportionately benefit from conservation incentives, potentially exacerbating existing economic disparities.

The Potential Role of 16th Finance Commission's:

• Integrating Climate Considerations into Tax Devolution Framework: The 16th Finance Commission has the potential to bring about a transformative shift by integrating climate vulnerability and emission intensity as pivotal factors in the tax devolution formula.
  • This alignment directly supports India's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, providing states with robust fiscal incentives to actively contribute to national climate goals.
• Implementing Performance-Based Grants for Key Sectors: Recognizing the instrumental role of specific sectors in achieving NDCs and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the 16th Finance Commission could contemplate introducing performance-based grants.
  • These grants, which are specifically designed to help areas like renewable energy, sustainable land and forest management, and air pollution efforts, provide states with focused financial assistance and motivate them to take proactive steps toward change.
• Addressing Emission Reduction Challenges: Prioritizing emission reduction, the commission can focus on decarbonizing critical sectors like energy and transport.
  • This entails incentivizing states to embrace clean energy practices and fostering innovation to tackle persistent issues like crop burning.
  • Through strategic fund allocation, the 16th Finance Commission can drive tangible progress in mitigating emission sources.
• Funding Innovations for Ecological Challenges: Allocating funds to innovative solutions for ecological challenges induced by climate change becomes a crucial role for the 16th Finance Commission.
  • Whether supporting mangrove restoration to counter weather vagaries or addressing the escalating incidents of forest fires, the commission can catalyze research, development, and implementation of sustainable strategies.
• Utilizing Scientific Data for Informed Decision-Making: Leveraging advanced technology, the 16th Finance Commission can utilize scientific data, pollution inventories, and remote sensing to assess state vulnerabilities and mitigation efforts.
  • This data-driven approach ensures that fiscal decisions are rooted in empirical evidence, enabling the commission to design an effective and equitable performance-based system for fund allocation.
• Transforming into a Leader in Climate Readiness: Going beyond its traditional fiscal role, the 16th Finance Commission has the potential to evolve into a leader in India's climate readiness.
  • This transformation involves active participation in designing and implementing a fiscal blueprint that balances economic growth with environmental imperatives, guiding policies that meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own.

Conclusion

In the current juncture where India grapples with the intertwined paths of economic advancement and environmental safeguarding, the Finance Commission's significance in fiscal federalism cannot be overstated.

The 16th Finance Commission, poised to influence tax distribution principles and stimulate climate-conscious endeavours, emerges as a pivotal player in fostering a harmonious equilibrium between economic progress and ecological conservation.

By adopting strategic measures and pioneering innovative strategies, the Finance Commission has the potential to evolve into a formidable catalyst in India's pursuit of climate resilience.

Why is it in the News?

What is the case before the World Court?

• South Africa brought a case against Israel to the ICJ on December 29, under the UN’s 1948 Genocide Convention.
• South Africa argued that Israel, in its ongoing Gaza assault, has transgressed from the provisions of Article 2 of the Convention.
  • This article defines the term “genocide” to mean “acts committed with intent to destroy, wholly or partly, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group”.
• The ICJ will eventually decide whether Israel is committing genocide or not — this may take years.
  • But first, it will decide whether it has jurisdiction on this matter and whether the alleged acts fall under the 1948 Convention.
• South Africa has also sought interim relief for the Palestinians and asked the ICJ to order Israel to immediately suspend all military operations in Gaza, as an interim measure.
• While the court’s rulings are legally binding, it has no way to enforce them.
• Nonetheless, its opinions carry weight with the UN and other international institutions.

What is the International Court of Justice (ICJ)?

• The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations that settles legal disputes between States in accordance with international law.
• Established in 1945 through the United Nations charter, the ICJ commenced its operations in April 1946.
• It is located at the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, distinguishing it from the other six principal UN organs situated in New York, USA.
• The ICJ specializes in settling legal disputes between states and providing advisory opinions on legal questions referred to by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies, all in accordance with international law.

Structure:

• Comprising 15 judges, elected for nine-year terms by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council, the Court ensures a simultaneous but separate voting process by these organs.
  • To be elected, a candidate must secure an absolute majority of votes in both bodies.
  • To maintain continuity, one-third of the Court is elected every three years, with judges eligible for re-election.
  • The Court is supported by a Registry, its administrative organ, and operates in English and French as its official languages.

Regional Distribution of Judges:

• The 15 judges are distributed across regions as follows:
  • Three from Africa.
  • Two from Latin America and the Caribbean.
  • Three from Asia.
  • Five from Western Europe and other states.
  • Two from Eastern Europe.

Indian Judges at ICJ:

• Four Indians have been members of the ICJ so far.
• Justice Dalveer Bhandari, former judge of the Supreme Court, has been serving at the ICJ since 2012.

Independence of Judges:

• In contrast to other international organizations' organs, the ICJ is unique in its composition, as it is not made up of government representatives.
• The Court's members are independent judges who, prior to assuming their duties, make a solemn declaration in open court, pledging to exercise their powers impartially and conscientiously.

Jurisdiction and Operations:

• The ICJ functions as a global court with a dual jurisdiction—addressing legal disputes between states submitted by them (contentious cases) and providing advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by United Nations organs and specialized agencies (advisory proceedings).
• In contentious cases, only states that are members of the United Nations and have become parties to the Statute of the Court, or those that have accepted its jurisdiction under specific conditions, can participate.
  • The judgments rendered in these cases are final, binding on the involved parties, and not subject to appeal.
  • At most, there may be provisions for interpretation or, in cases of newly discovered facts, revision.

What is the Genocide Convention?

• The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, commonly known as the Genocide Convention, serves as a foundational instrument in international law, officially defining the crime of genocide for the first time.
• According to the provisions of the Genocide Convention, genocide is deemed a crime applicable both in times of war and peace.
  • This pivotal human rights treaty marked a historic milestone as the initial treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948.
  • It symbolizes the global commitment to the principle of 'never again,' echoing the collective resolve of the international community in the aftermath of the atrocities witnessed during the Second World War.
• The definition of genocide outlined in the Convention has gained widespread acceptance on both national and international fronts, finding incorporation into significant legal frameworks, including the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC).
  • The Rome Statute, a pivotal development, introduced four core international crimes: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression—all of which are explicitly stated to be exempt from any statute of limitations.
• Crucially, the Genocide Convention imposes on State Parties the responsibility to undertake measures for the prevention and punishment of genocide.
  • This includes the enactment of relevant legislation and the punishment of perpetrators, irrespective of their status as constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials, or private individuals (Article IV).
• Both South Africa and Israel are parties to the Convention.

How often do such cases come before the ICJ?

This is not the first case the court will hear under the Genocide Convention.

• In 2022, Ukraine filed a case against Russia, and in 2019, the Gambia filed a case against Myanmar with respect to the Rohingya.
• The Myanmar case was the first time that a State invoked the court’s jurisdiction to seek redress for genocidal acts committed against the citizens of another state.
  • The court agreed that the Gambia had standing to bring the case.
• Like the Gambia, South Africa has based its jurisdiction under obligations erga omnes partes — that is, as a party to the Convention, it can bring this case because of its community interest in preventing genocide.

What will happen now?

• South Africa’s case appears to meet the threshold for the court to make a provisional measures order.
  • The Court must be satisfied it has prima facie jurisdiction; there is a “plausible” link between the rights asserted by South Africa and the measures it requests; and a risk of irreparable harm and urgency.
• That order will come within weeks and will have legal significance for all States that are parties to the Genocide Convention because such an order is binding on all States, even though the court lacks enforcement mechanisms.
• Israel has called the case “baseless” and a “blood libel”, and called on the international community to reject it.
  • The United States, Hungary, and Guatemala have done so.
• Palestine has welcomed South Africa’s case, as have the 57 Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) countries, Malaysia, Turkey, Jordan, Bolivia, Venezuela, Mexico, Bangladesh, Namibia, Nicaragua, and some others.
• France has stated that it will support the court’s decision and India has not issued any statement.

Why is it in the News?

Logistics has been talked about for a long time and India has also focused on improving performance. We are now getting some precise data on measurement and quantification.

Context:

• The logistics sector plays a vital role in shaping a nation's economic dynamics, and its intricacies are of paramount importance.
• India's steady progress in the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) rankings reflects positive advancements in its logistics sector, showcasing a dedicated effort to boost global competitiveness and streamline trade logistics efficiency.
• Consequently, a comprehensive examination of India's logistics landscape, involving the analysis of key indicators, methodologies, and recent reports, becomes essential for a nuanced comprehension of its achievements and hurdles.

The Logistics Performance Index (LPI):

• Developed by the World Bank, the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) stands as a crucial tool for evaluating a country's trade logistics efficiency and effectiveness.
• Comprising six key dimensions—customs, infrastructure, international shipments, logistics competence, tracking and tracing, and timeliness—the LPI offers a comprehensive insight into a nation's logistical capabilities.

India's Position in the LPI:

• Despite inherent methodological considerations in survey-based indices, the 2023 LPI places India at the 38th position out of 139 countries, showcasing an improvement from its 2014 rank of 54.
• This positive trajectory aligns with India's 2022 vision to reduce logistics costs, enhance LPI rankings, and establish a data-driven decision support mechanism.
• Furthermore, the introduction of PM Gati Shakti in 2021, though its impact is not immediately reflected in the LPI 2023 due to understandable time lags.

Assessing Logistics Costs in India:

• Economic Survey 2022-23: The Economic Survey 2022-23 reveals a consistent range of logistics costs in India, hovering between 14-18% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
• This starkly contrasts with the global benchmark of 8%, highlighting the challenges in achieving optimal efficiency in India's logistics operations.
• The survey emphasizes the need for strategic interventions to address the significant gap between India's logistics costs and international standards.
• Dun and Bradstreet (D&B) 2018 Report: An in-depth examination of seaport business costs by a Dun and Bradstreet (D&B) 2018 report indicates that the cost is approximately 15-16% of the consignment value.
• Notably, there is considerable variation across ports, emphasizing the necessity of a nuanced approach in evaluating logistics costs within specific segments of the supply chain.
• NCAER Report (December 2023): The National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) introduces a fresh perspective in its report on logistics costs in India.
• Acknowledging the absence of official estimates, the report references various private sector and academic institutions' estimates.
• Employing meticulous methodology, including supply and use tables, the report provides a nuanced and precise estimation.
• According to this report, logistics costs in 2021-22 ranged between 7.8% and 8.9% of GDP, showcasing a decline over time with a transient increase in 2017-18 and 2018-19.
• CII-Arthur D Little Report (2020): Delving into logistics costs throughout the supply chain, the CII-Arthur D Little Report (2020) estimates them to be around USD 400 billion, equivalent to 14% of India's GDP.
• Comparative assessments with global peers, including the United States, Europe, and China, expose a competitiveness gap of USD 180 billion.
• The report underscores the urgency of addressing these high logistics costs to bolster India's economic competitiveness globally.

Logistics Cost Performance Across States:

• As per the Commerce Ministry's LEADS (Logistics Ease Across Different States) report for 2023:
• States are categorized into four groups - coastal, landlocked, north-east, and Union Territories.
• States exhibiting strong performance are termed achievers.
• States with moderate performance are referred to as fast movers.
• States with below-average performance are labelled as aspirers.
• Performance of Coastal States:
• Approximately 75% of export cargo is traced back to coastal states.
• Among coastal states, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are notably successful.
• However, lagging behind in performance are Goa, Odisha, and West Bengal.
• While most states, including Goa and Odisha, have implemented a state-level logistics policy, West Bengal, ranking lowest in the coastal category, lacks one.

Difficulties and Variations for Policymakers in Developing a Successful Plan for India's Logistics Sector:

• Methodological Variations: A key challenge in deciphering logistics cost reports stems from the diverse methodologies employed across different studies.
• These reports adopt varied approaches, ranging from consignment value percentages to supply and use tables, to estimate logistics costs.
• The resulting disparities in methodologies contribute to variations in reported figures, necessitating careful consideration when drawing conclusions.
• India's Global Competitiveness: The consistent comparison with global benchmarks, particularly the 8% GDP threshold for logistics costs, prompts questions about India's competitiveness on the international stage.
• Reports consistently highlight a competitiveness gap, with logistics costs surpassing global averages.
• This has implications for India's capacity to attract investment, participate in global trade, and position itself advantageously in the interconnected world economy.

Shifting Perspectives on India’s Logistics Costs:

• Reassessing Established Views: The evolving discourse on logistics costs in India challenges conventional perceptions regarding the country's logistics expenses.
• As methodologies advance and newer reports offer more accurate estimations, the narrative may transition from a broad acknowledgement of high costs to a more nuanced comprehension of the sector's intricacies.
• This evolving narrative carries implications for businesses, investors, and policymakers, prompting them to stay informed of the latest data and adjust strategies accordingly.
• Encouraging Trends Amid Challenges: While challenges persist, positive trends also emerge from the data.
• The improvement in India's Logistics Performance Index (LPI) rankings over time and the downward trend in logistics costs, as highlighted by the NCAER report, present a more optimistic outlook.
• These positive signals indicate that endeavors to enhance logistics efficiency and reduce costs may be gaining momentum, pointing towards a positive trajectory for India's logistics landscape.

Conclusion

The logistics landscape in India is intricate, featuring indices like LPI, varied cost assessments, and state-level nuances that collectively contribute to a holistic understanding.

The recent NCAER report establishes a crucial methodological groundwork for future deliberations, challenging existing perceptions and emphasizing the importance of accurate measurement in assessing India's logistics capabilities.

In the pursuit of elevating its global position in logistics, India must adopt a nuanced approach that considers both macro and micro perspectives. This approach is vital for fostering sustainable growth and driving efficiency improvements throughout the nation.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, the Election Commission of India released an advisory for political parties to follow disability-sensitive terminologies and be more inclusive of persons with disabilities.

Context:

• On December 21, the Election Commission of India released a significant advisory, encouraging political parties to embrace terminology that is sensitive to disability issues.
• This initiative is designed to enhance communication that is inclusive of individuals with disabilities, guarantee the accessibility of information, and advocate for inclusion within the structures of political parties.
• This proactive measure is especially noteworthy in light of recent instances where national leaders have used disparaging language about disabilities in their election speeches, contributing to the creation of an "attitudinal barrier" as defined by the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016.
  • For example, in September 2023, Tamil Nadu leader A Raja compared Sanatan Dharma to people with leprosy and HIV in a derogatory manner.

What is Disability?

• Disability is characterized by a limitation or absence of capacity to engage in typical human activities, often resulting from an impairment.
• According to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN CRPD), individuals with disabilities are those facing long-term physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory challenges, which, in conjunction with societal barriers, hinder their complete involvement in community life.
• This issue holds substantial importance in public health, particularly in nations undergoing development, such as India.
• The International Day of Persons with Disabilities, marked on December 3rd by the United Nations, is dedicated to globally raising awareness about challenges related to disabilities.

About the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (PwD) Act, 2016:

• An Important Legislative Framework for PwD: This legislation plays a significant role in safeguarding and advancing the rights and privileges of persons with disabilities (PwD).
  • Replacing the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995, the 2016 Act marks a significant stride toward promoting the rights and inclusivity of persons with disabilities across India.
• Rights and Entitlements: Clearly articulating the rights and entitlements of persons with disabilities, the Act ensures their right to equality, protection against discrimination, and active participation in society.
• Education: The Act guarantees free education for persons with disabilities up to 18 years of age and advocates for inclusive educational practices.
• Employment: Promoting equal opportunities, the Act prohibits discrimination and mandates both government and private sector establishments to reserve a designated percentage of jobs for persons with disabilities.
• Reservation in Higher Education: The Act advocates for the reservation of seats in higher educational institutions for persons with disabilities.
• Special Employment Exchanges: Recognizing the importance of facilitating employment, the Act mandates the establishment of special employment exchanges.
• Accessibility: Highlighting the significance of barrier-free access, the Act stresses the need for inclusive designs in public buildings, transportation, and information and communication technologies.
• Healthcare: Ensuring access to affordable and quality healthcare services, the Act prioritizes the healthcare needs of persons with disabilities.
• Legal Capacity: Acknowledging the right to equal recognition before the law, the Act supports the decision-making capacity of persons with disabilities.
• Social Security: The Act advocates for social security and welfare measures to support the well-being of persons with disabilities.
• National and State Advisory Boards: To oversee effective implementation, the Act calls for the establishment of National and State Advisory Boards.
• Offences and Penalties: Prescribing penalties for offences against persons with disabilities, the Act ensures accessible legal proceedings for their protection.

Important Features of the Disability-Inclusive Communication Guidelines from ECI:

• Prohibition of Ill-Health Terminologies: The guidelines emphasize refraining from using ill-health terminologies when referring to individuals with disabilities.
  • This prohibition aims to counteract the use of language that may stigmatize or marginalize people with disabilities, as demonstrated by instances such as Tamil Nadu leader A Raja's derogatory comparison in September 2023, highlighting the urgent need for corrective measures.
• Prevention of Dehumanization and Stereotyping: Another vital aspect of the guidelines is the call to avoid dehumanizing portrayals and the perpetuation of stereotypes related to Persons with Disabilities (PwDs).
  • Instances of national leaders using disability as a demeaning tool during election speeches underscore the deep-rooted problem these guidelines aim to address.
  • By discouraging language that fosters stereotypes, the guidelines work to dismantle attitudinal barriers identified under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016.
• Recognition of Legal Implications: The advisory acknowledges the legal implications of violating these communication guidelines.
  • Breaches, especially in disability-inclusive communication, could subject political parties and their members to action under section 92 of the Rights of PwD Act.
  • This section, a punitive provision for offences against PwDs, underscores the severity of the issue.
  • Therefore, the guidelines not only aim to enhance communication but also contribute to legal measures protecting the rights and dignity of PwDs.

Ideas to Improve the Effectiveness of ECI's Guidelines:

• Need for a Uniform Mandate: Despite the critical nature of these guidelines, a thorough analysis reveals a potential area for improvement.
  • While guidelines within the disability-inclusive communication category use mandatory language like ‘should’ and ‘shall,’ others, especially those related to inclusion within the political party framework, employ discretionary terms such as ‘may.’
  • To bolster their impact, a uniform mandate across all categories is essential, establishing a consistent and enforceable framework for political parties.
• Incorporate Guidelines into Model Code of Conduct (MCC): These guidelines are not yet part of the MCC.
  • The advisory notes that a breach of guidelines related to disability-inclusive communication could lead to action under section 92 of the Rights of PwD Act, but it remains unclear whether other breaches will invoke this provision.
  • Section 92 serves as a punitive measure for offences against PwDs, and the guidelines should be integrated into the MCC, similar to gender guidelines, to fortify their enforcement.
• Address Ambiguity in Phraseology: There is some ambiguity within the guidelines regarding specific phraseology, such as the mention of words like "blind," "deaf," and "dumb" as incorrect terminologies.
  • While their translation in Hindi or another language might be derogatory, these are technical terms for people with visual, hearing, and speech disabilities.
  • A detailed list of disability-sensitive words and phraseology, aligned with the UN Disability Inclusion Strategy, could guide the ECI in providing clarity.
• Incorporate a Chapter on Political Inclusion in the National Policy: The draft National Policy for PwD released last year lacked a dedicated chapter on political inclusion.
  • The ECI advisory emphasizes that political parties must strive to include PwDs at all levels and adhere to accessibility norms.
  • To catalyze the political inclusion of PwDs, a dedicated chapter on political inclusion should be integrated into the national policy, aligning with the principles of Article 29 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
• Creation of a Database on Legislators with Disabilities: Currently, there is no data on the number of legislators with disabilities, and the ECI's nomination forms lack a column on disability.
  • This absence of data significantly contributes to the political exclusion of PwDs.
  • The ECI must address this gap, possibly by introducing a column on disability in nomination forms and affidavits during elections, as a second step towards fostering the political inclusion of PwDs.

Conclusion

The Election Commission of India's recent advisory introducing disability-sensitive guidelines for political parties marks a significant stride towards fostering inclusivity in the political sphere. Nevertheless, to unlock the complete potential of these guidelines, key improvements are imperative. These include adopting a uniform and obligatory language, integrating the guidelines into the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), and adopting a holistic approach to political inclusion within national policies. By addressing these facets, India has the opportunity to shape a more inclusive political landscape that upholds and empowers individuals with disabilities.

Why is it in the News?

The University Grants Commission (UGC) has been issuing regulations, guidelines and directives at breakneck speed that some of the important ones miss drawing the attention of the higher education community.

Context:

• The University Grants Commission (UGC) has introduced Mulya Pravah 2.0 to enhance the ethical landscape of higher education institutions.
• This evolved guideline, succeeding its 2019 predecessor, aims to instil human values and professional ethics, actively combating unethical practices that have permeated various institutions.
• The primary focus involves constructing value-based institutions that resonate with fundamental duties and constitutional values, urging a commitment to integrity and ethical conduct.

What is Mulya Pravah?

• Officially notified in 2019, Mulya Pravah aims to instil human values and professional ethics within higher education institutions.
• Its explicit objective is to cultivate value-based institutions by guiding individuals and institutions toward fostering profound respect for fundamental duties, constitutional values, and a strong connection with the country.

What is Mulya Pravah 2.0?

• Mulya Pravah 2.0, a revised guideline by the University Grants Commission (UGC), is designed to foster ethical practices and human values within higher education institutions.
• Its inception was prompted by revelations from a survey among human resource managers, uncovering unethical practices like favouritism, sexual harassment, and gender discrimination in various organisational processes.
• The primary objective of this guideline is to construct value-based institutions by nurturing a sense of respect for fundamental duties, and constitutional values, and fostering a connection to the nation.

Key Features of Mulya Pravah 2.0:

• Addressing Unethical Practices: Mulya Pravah 2.0 confronts the prevalent unethical practices identified in higher education institutions, as uncovered by a survey involving human resource managers.
  • These malpractices encompass favouritism, sexual harassment, gender discrimination, inconsistent discipline, lack of confidentiality, and unscrupulous dealings with vendors for personal gain.
  • While acknowledging that such issues may extend beyond higher education, this guideline serves as a commendable initiative toward fostering ethical conduct.
• Emphasis on Transparency: A pivotal aspect of Mulya Pravah 2.0 is its advocacy for absolute transparency in administration. Decision-making within higher education institutions is expected to be guided solely by institutional and public interest, free from biases.
  • The guideline stresses the elimination of discriminatory privileges and underscores the importance of penalizing corruption.
  • It urges the establishment of a conducive culture and work environment, aligning actions with the best interests of the institution.
• Guidelines Emphasize Upholding Values: Mulya Pravah 2.0 mandates that higher education institutions uphold values such as integrity, trusteeship, harmony, accountability, inclusiveness, commitment, respectfulness, belongingness, sustainability, constitutional values, and global citizenship.
  • This intervention is timely, considering the diminishing prevalence of these values. Officers in universities are entrusted with ensuring strict adherence to these values both in letter and spirit.
• Guidelines Remind Institutions to Act in the Best Interest: Mulya Pravah 2.0 serves as a reminder for stakeholders to act in the best interest of their institution, fostering a conducive culture and work environment for teaching, learning, and research while developing the potential of the institution.
  • It explicitly states that officers and staff must refrain from misappropriating financial and other resources.
  • Additionally, it calls for a refusal to accept gifts, favours, services, or other items from any entity that may compromise the impartial performance of duties.

What are the Challenges in the Effective Implementation of Mulya Pravah 2.0?

• Sincerity and Commitment of Higher Education Regulators: The mere issuance of guidelines may prove insufficient if higher education regulators lack sincere commitment to enforce the provisions of Mulya Pravah 2.0.
  • The UGC must demonstrate unwavering determination, setting a precedent by exhibiting zero tolerance for any form of corruption or ethical violations within the academic sphere.
• Institutional Resistance to Change: Established norms and practices within higher education institutions may resist the infusion of Mulya Pravah 2.0's principles, as institutional cultures can be deeply ingrained.
  • Overcoming institutional inertia requires proactive efforts by university administrators, faculty, and other stakeholders to embrace and implement the ethical guidelines.
• Lack of Monitoring Mechanisms: Effective implementation requires robust monitoring mechanisms to track and evaluate adherence to the guidelines at various levels.
  • The absence of a comprehensive monitoring framework may lead to laxity, allowing unethical practices to persist unchecked.
• Resistance from Internal Stakeholders: Faculty, staff, and student unions might resist the guidelines, perceiving them as an imposition on their autonomy or a threat to established practices.
  • Overcoming resistance necessitates effective communication, collaboration, and building consensus among all internal stakeholders.
• Balancing Transparency and Confidentiality: The guideline's emphasis on maintaining confidentiality might clash with the broader societal demand for transparency in higher education institutions.
  • Striking a delicate balance between the two is crucial to avoid potential conflicts and ensure the right to information is not compromised.
• Undefined Parameters and Ambiguities: Some aspects of Mulya Pravah 2.0, such as what constitutes a dignified manner for raising issues, lack clear definitions.
  • Ambiguities in the guideline could lead to misinterpretations, allowing room for manipulation and misuse.
• Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring that institutions adhere to the legal and regulatory framework while implementing Mulya Pravah 2.0 is essential.
  • Non-compliance or overlooking legal aspects may render the guideline ineffective or subject to legal challenges.
• Cultural and Regional Variations: Higher education institutions exhibit diverse cultural and regional variations, influencing the reception and interpretation of ethical guidelines.
  • Tailoring the implementation strategy to accommodate these variations is vital for the guidelines to resonate across different contexts.
• Inadequate Training and Awareness Programs: The success of Mulya Pravah 2.0 depends on the understanding and active participation of all stakeholders.
  • Insufficient training and awareness programs may result in a lack of clarity regarding the guidelines, reducing their impact.

What Steps Can Be Taken to Improve Governance in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)?

• Addressing the Issue of Confidentiality: The guideline should advocate for institutions to promptly publish agendas, proceedings, and minutes of meetings held by their decision-making bodies, sub-committees, and standing committees.
  • Furthermore, institutions are encouraged to make their annual reports and audited accounts accessible to the public.
  • This proactive disclosure can act as a deterrent against malpractices and contribute significantly to rebuilding public trust in institutional operations.
• Addressing Teachers’ Associations: Recognizing the significant impact teachers have on students' character, personality, and careers, Mulya Pravah 2.0 emphasizes that teachers should serve as role models.
  • This involves exhibiting good conduct and maintaining high standards of dress, speech, and behavior for students to emulate.
  • While the guideline underscores the expectation for teachers to adhere to university rules and policies, it does not explicitly address the role or function of teachers' associations, which warrants attention for a comprehensive approach.
• Clarity on the Definition of 'Dignified Manner' for Unions and Support: Mulya Pravah 2.0 anticipates the support of staff and student unions in development activities while urging them to raise concerns in a dignified manner.
  • However, the guideline lacks a clear definition or explanation of what constitutes a 'dignified manner.'
  • This absence leaves room for potential misuse, allowing the provision to be wielded in ways that may threaten, silence, or undermine the collective voices of stakeholders.
  • A clear definition is crucial to avoid such misinterpretations and promote a healthy collaborative environment.

Conclusion

Mulya Pravah 2.0, introduced by the University Grants Commission, represents a commendable stride in instilling ethical values within higher education. Nonetheless, addressing its challenges necessitates inclusive discussions with all stakeholders. Effective implementation is imperative for realizing its potential to enhance the quality and sustainability of decisions within the educational sphere.

Why is it in the News

A recent study on child marriage in India published in the Lancet noted the overall decrease in child marriage across the country but pointed out that four States, mainly Bihar (16.7%), West Bengal (15.2%), Uttar Pradesh (12.5%), and Maharashtra (8.2%) accounted for more than half of the total headcount burden of child marriages in girls.

Key Findings of the Report:

• In a recent study published in the Lancet Global Health, findings reveal that one in five girls and one in six boys in India are still marrying below the legal age.
• Utilizing data from five National Family Health Surveys spanning 1993 to 2021, researchers underscore the urgent need for strengthened national and state-level policies to eradicate child marriage by 2030.
• Notable disparities in the prevalence of girl and boy child marriages across states and Union Territories were observed during the study period.
• While all states, except Manipur, showed a decline in girl child marriage between 1993 and 2021, specific states like Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra accounted for over half of the total burden.
• For boys, Gujarat, Bihar, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh accounted for more than 60% of the burden.
• Jharkhand exhibited the largest percentage increase in child marriage headcount (53.1%) between 1993 and 2021.
• Despite most states and Union Territories witnessing a decrease in the headcount of girl child marriage, Uttar Pradesh demonstrated the most substantial absolute decrease, contributing to about one-third of the nationwide decrease from 1993 to 2021
•  Conversely, West Bengal saw the largest absolute increase, with over 500,000 more girls married as children during the same period.

What is Child Marriage?

• Child marriage is a social phenomenon prevalent in some Indian societies, where adults marry young children, usually girls under the age of fifteen.
• Another form involves parents arranging future marriages for children who only meet when reaching marriageable age, at which point the wedding ceremony occurs.

Child Marriages in India have undergone significant change:

• From 47.4% in 2005-06, child marriage decreased to 26.8% in 2015-16.
• In the last five years, it further declined by 3.5% points, reaching 23.3% in 2020-21, as per the latest National Family Health Survey-5 data.
• Despite an overall trend of decline, the current rate of 23.3% remains distressingly high in a country with a population of 141.2 crore.
• Eight states surpass the national average in child marriage prevalence, with West Bengal, Bihar, and Tripura having over 40% of women aged 20-24 married below 18, according to NFHS data.
• Some states, like Madhya Pradesh (23.1% in 2020-21 from 32.4% in 2015-16), Rajasthan (25.4% from 35.4%), and Haryana, have demonstrated a reduction in child marriages.

What is the Global Scenario?

• UNICEF data reveals that annually, 12 million girls enter childhood marriages.
• The 2030 UN Sustainable Development Goals target the eradication of harmful practices, including child, early, and forced marriages, along with female genital mutilations, under goal 5.
• Despite notable progress in South Asia over the past decade, where the risk of a girl marrying before 18 has decreased by over a third, dropping from nearly 50% to below 30%, the advancements are insufficient, and progress remains uneven.

Impact of Child Marriage:

• Beyond being a human rights violation and a recognized form of sexual and gender-based violence, child marriage significantly affects maternal and child health.
  • A recent tragedy at Murshidabad Medical College and Hospital saw 10 infants die within 24 hours, with the majority born with extremely low birth weight.
  • Murshidabad, an economically challenged district, grapples with a high prevalence of child marriages in West Bengal.
• NFHS-5 highlights that 55.4% of women aged 20-24 years in the district are married before the age of 18, marking an increase from NFHS-4, which reported a figure of 53.5%.

Legal Measures in India:

• Various laws, such as the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, and the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012, work toward safeguarding children from human rights violations.
• The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021 aims to raise the minimum marriage age for women from the current 18 years to 21 years.

Reasons to Raise the Minimum Age of Marriage for Females:

• Addressing Education and Employment Disparities: Women often face inequalities in accessing education and employment due to early marriages.
  • Early marriage can restrict women from pursuing education and economic opportunities.
  • Raising the minimum age for marriage can encourage more women to pursue higher education and seek employment.
• Impact of Early Marriage on Women's and Children's Health: Early marriages and subsequent early pregnancies have significant implications for the nutritional levels, overall health, and mental wellbeing of both mothers and children.
  • Underage mothers are more vulnerable to reproductive health challenges, malnutrition, postpartum hemorrhage, and susceptibility to sexually transmitted diseases.

Govt. Initiatives for Preventing Girl Child Marriage:

• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: Among various girl child welfare schemes, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao is widely recognized.
  • Translating to "Save the Girl Child, Educate the Girl Child," it focuses on women empowerment and creating an inclusive ecosystem.
  •  The scheme aims to promote the safety of girl children before and after birth.
• Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana (SSY): Launched in 2015, SSY promotes the welfare of girl children.
  • It encourages parents to invest in funds for the girl's future studies and marriage expenses.
• Balika Samriddhi Yojana: This central government scheme supports girls in financially vulnerable sections.
  • Ensures the enrollment and retention of girl children in primary and secondary schools, emphasizing quality education.

Why is it in the News?

Recently, during a visit to the Calicut University campus, the Governor of Kerala referred to activists from the Students’ Federation of India as 'criminals.' This incident raises concerns about the conduct of Governors in states led by opposition parties and underscores the need to examine the legal implications of such statements.

Context:

• In Kerala, the State Assembly passed a Bill to abolish the Governor’s chancellorship.
• The Governor did not give assent to it and referred the Bill, along with others, to the President.
• This happened after he sat on the Bills for a long time and after the government moved the Supreme Court to pray for gubernatorial assent.
• It was in this context that he visited the University as Chancellor, against the will of the Assembly.
• This action lacked democratic legitimacy.

Role of Chancellor in State Public Universities:

• State public universities are established through state legislation, with the Governor typically designated as the Chancellor in most laws.
• As Chancellor, the Governor serves as the head of public universities and holds the authority to appoint the Vice-Chancellor.
• The Chancellor possesses the power to invalidate any university proceedings not in accordance with existing laws.

Governor's Discretion as Chancellor:

• In 1997, the Supreme Court clarified that the Governor, in the capacity of Chancellor, is not bound by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers when performing duties related to a separate statutory office.
• Both the Sarkaria and Punchhi Commissions acknowledged the Governor's independence in discharging statutory functions, emphasizing that the Governor is not legally obligated to follow the advice of the Council of Ministers.
• However, consultation with the concerned Minister may be beneficial for the Governor

Limits to immunity:

• Article 361 of the Constitution provides only a limited and conditional immunity for the Governors.
• It says that Governors shall not be answerable to any court for the exercise and performance of the powers and duties of their office or for any act done or purported to be done by them in their official capacity.
• This does not mean that Governors are not liable for their misbehaviour unconnected with their official duty.
• In Rameshwar Prasad v. Union of India (2006), after finding that the Governor abused power in recommending Presidential rule in Bihar, the Supreme Court said that the motivated and whimsical conduct of the Governor is amenable to judicial review.
• Yet, the question of whether Governors can claim immunity for extra-constitutional gestures and utterances was not a matter of issue in Rameshwar Prasad.
• However, the Court said that “right persons” should be chosen as Governors to maintain “the sanctity of the post”.

Legal Implications of Derogatory Comments by Public Functionaries:

• Kaushal Kishor v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2023): The court emphasized that the freedom of expression for public functionaries should only be restricted by 'reasonable restrictions' outlined in Article 19(2) of the Constitution.
• Regarding ministers, Justice B.V. Nagarathna highlighted that if a public functionary's statement contradicts the government's stance, the minister is personally responsible and can face consequences for the remarks.
• While there was agreement on the personal liability of public functionaries for actions unrelated to their public duty, there were varying opinions on the enforcement of fundamental rights against non-state actors.
• This implies that public functionaries do not enjoy statutory or constitutional immunity if they commit a crime, including offences like defamation, especially when the act is unrelated to or conflicts with their official duties.

Commission reports:

• The Sarkaria Commission Report (1988) lamented that “some Governors have failed to display the qualities of impartiality and sagacity expected of them”.
• It added that “many Governors, looking forward to further office under the Union or [an] active role in politics after their tenure came to regard themselves as agents of the Union”. Since then, the situation has only worsened.
• The Commission’s recommendation that the “(Governor) should be a detached figure and not too intimately connected with the local politics of the State” remains wishful thinking.
• The Justice M.M. Punchhi Commission report (2010) said that “to be able to discharge the constitutional obligations fairly and impartially, the Governor should not be burdened with positions and powers which are not envisaged by the Constitution.”
• It said that conferring statutory power on Governors by posting them as chancellors of the universities will have the potential to expose Raj Bhavan to “controversies or public criticism”.

Way Forward:

• Legal Prohibition: The state legislative requires systemic changes regarding the office of the Governor, necessitating a legal prohibition against further appointments of Governors in any official capacity.
• Constitutional Amendment: The central government should consider amending Article 155 of the Constitution, involving consultation with the Chief Minister, as recommended by the Sarkaria Commission.
• Establishing an independent body for Governor selection, with a significant role for the Chief Justice of India, could enhance the quality of the selection process.
• Constitutional Morality: While the Constitution may not regulate individual behaviour, emphasizing the notion of constitutional morality is crucial.
• In the NCT of Delhi v. Union of India (2018) case, the Supreme Court highlighted the importance of identifying the "moral values of the Constitution" based on a notion of "constitutional culture."
• It stressed that "constitutional morality places responsibilities and duties on individuals who occupy constitutional institutions and offices."

Conclusion

While the office of the Governor is entrusted with defending the Constitution and advising elected regimes, it is essential to prevent the potential misuse of powers in the absence of a defined time frame for decision-making. Establishing a reasonable time frame for Governors to decide on Bills passed by the Assembly is imperative to safeguard the principles of federalism in the country.

Important Constitutional Provisions Related to the Governor:

• Article 153 stipulates that each state shall have a Governor, with one person who can be appointed as Governor for two or more states.
• The Governor of a State shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal (Article 155).
• A person to be eligible for appointment as Governor should be a citizen of India and have completed an age of 35 years (Article 157).
• Article 156 of the Indian Constitution deals with the Term of office of Governor.
• It further states that the Governor shall hold office during the pleasure of the President.
• Article 161 grants the Governor the power to grant pardons, reprieves, etc.
• However, the Supreme Court clarified that the Governor exercises this power in consultation with the State government, being bound by its advice.
• Article 163 establishes a council of ministers headed by the Chief Minister to aid and advise the Governor in performing functions, with certain exceptions for discretion.
• Article 164: The Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister, and the Ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor.
• Article 174: The Governor can also summon, prorogue, and dissolve the Legislative Assembly.
• By convention, he does this on the advice of the Council of Ministers while they enjoy the confidence of the Assembly

Discretionary powers include:

• Appointment of a Chief Minister in the absence of a clear majority in the state legislative assembly
• Handling situations like no-confidence motions
• Addressing the failure of constitutional machinery in the state (Article 356)
• The Governor's authority concerning the passage of bills is delineated by Article 200 and Article 201. The Governor may:
• Give assent, turning the bill into law
• Withhold assent, rejecting the bill
• Return the bill (if not a money bill) to the state legislature for reconsideration, with or without specific recommendations
• If the bill is reconsidered and passed again, the Governor cannot withhold assent.
• The Governor may also reserve the bill for the President's consideration, who can assent, withhold assent, or direct the Governor to return the bill to the state legislature for further review.

Why is it in the News?

The Centre has decided to scrap the Free Movement Regime (FMR) along the Indo-Myanmar Border (IMB), which was implemented in 2018 as part of India’s Act East policy.

What is the Free Movement Regime?

• The FMR is a mutually agreed pact between India and Myanmar that allows tribes dwelling along the border on either side to travel up to 16 km inside the other country without a visa.
• The members of hill tribes have to produce a border pass, which is valid for a year and can stay in the other country for about two weeks per visit.
• The FMR was introduced in 2018 as part of the government’s ‘Act East Policy’ when relations between India and Myanmar were on the rise.
• The agreement aimed to facilitate people-to-people ties between the countries as residents in the region enjoy strong ethnic and familial relations on both sides of the border.
• The FMR was also brought to provide impetus to local trade and business.
• Originally planned for 2017, its implementation was delayed due to the Rohingya refugee crisis that emerged in August of that year.

Background and Purpose:

• The boundary delineation by the British in 1826 separated people of the same ethnicity and culture into two nations without their opinion.
• The FMR sought to address this historical division, allowing ethnically similar communities across borders to move freely without visa requirements.
• Initially designed to boost local trade and business, the FMR has faced criticism for inadvertently facilitating issues such as illegal immigration, drug trafficking, and gun-running.

Why it is being removed?

• India and Myanmar share a mostly unfenced border.
• The IMB goes through forested terrain which is difficult to monitor.
• In Manipur, just 10 km of its border with Myanmar is fenced.
• Mizoram has a 510-km-long porous border with Myanmar.
• Nagaland shares a 215 km boundary with the Southeast Asian nation and
• Arunachal Pradesh has a 520 km-long boundary with Myanmar.
• Since the ethnic conflict erupted in Manipur last year, the free movement regime has come into the spotlight.
• The Meiteis have blamed the illegal migration of tribal Kuki-Chin peoples from Myanmar for stirring up tensions in the state.
• On the other hand, the Kukis in Manipur have accused the Meiteis and Chief Minister N Biren Singh of using this as an excuse for “ethnic cleansing”.
• The alleged illegal migration via the FMR has emerged as a key issue between local leaders in Manipur.
• The FMR was suspended several times in the past, including in 2020 during COVID-19.
• Since the military coup in Myanmar on 1 February 2021, a large number of tribals fleeing violence in their country have crossed over to India, especially into Manipur and Mizoram.
• Over 40,000 refugees belonging to the Kuki-Chin-Zo ethnic group took shelter in Mizoram, while about 4,000 migrants are said to have entered Manipur.
• There are allegations that these refugees took shelter on Indian soil and then got involved in illegal activities such as drug smuggling.

Is ending FMR the solution?

• Many insurgent groups such as the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), and small groups of Kukis and Zomis have constructed camps in Myanmar’s Sagaing Division, Kachin State and Chin State.
• “They took shelter there, obtained arms, trained cadres, and, most importantly, engaged in illegal activities such as smuggling drugs and selling weapons to raise funds.
• This is possible because of the porous borders and frequent misuse of FMR.
• Therefore, managing and administering the border areas effectively is pertinent for reducing drug trafficking and illegal cross-border movement on unfenced borders.

Conclusion

The Indo-Myanmar border, spanning 1,643 km, presents challenges related to secessionist movements, insurgency, and narcotics smuggling. Neither cancelling the FMR nor completely fencing the border is the solution as it could affect livelihoods, education and essential travel for health care. It is imperative for India to tackle the issue by pursuing the ‘killing the snake without breaking the stick’ stance. A collaborative and multifaceted approach is crucial to addressing these challenges and ensuring stability in the region.

Indo-Myanmar Border:

• The Indo-Myanmar border spans 1,643 km, with Arunachal Pradesh (520 km), Nagaland (215 km), Manipur (398 km), and Mizoram (510 km) sharing common borders with Myanmar.
• Demarcation of the Border: Approximately 1,472 km of the border has been demarcated, leaving only two sections unmarked:
• Lohit sub-sector in Arunachal Pradesh (136 km) and
• Kabaw Valley in Manipur (35 km).

Security Challenges

• Secessionist Movements: The Greater Nagaland movement, encompassing areas in both India and Myanmar, has heightened instability along the border.
• Support to Insurgents: Insurgents in India's Northeastern states maintain ties with groups in Myanmar, offering political support, economic aid, logistics, military training, or arms supplies.
• Narcotics Smuggling:  Proximity to the Golden Triangle, a hub for drug production, contributes to rampant drug trafficking, with concerns about synthetic drug trafficking to and from Myanmar.

Border Management

• Security Forces: The Assam Rifles, known as the "Friends of the North East People," safeguards the Indo-Myanmar border in the North East.
• Modern Surveillance Equipment: Modern tools like Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Battlefield Surveillance Radar (BFSR), and Laser Range Finders enhance border security.
• Border Fencing: To curb infiltration and illegal activities, the Indian government is implementing fencing measures along the Indo-Myanmar border.
• Comprehensive Border Infrastructure Project: A comprehensive project aims to enhance infrastructure on the India-Myanmar border.
• Integrated Check Posts (ICPs): Major entry points on land borders are designated as Integrated Check Posts (ICPs) for efficient management.
• Border Area Development Programme (BADP): The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) undertakes various developmental initiatives under the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) for a holistic approach to border development.

Why is it in the News?

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) put its first polarimetry mission X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) in a precise circular orbit of 650 km on Monday (January 1) after a 21-minute flight.

Context:

• As the world welcomed the first morning of 2024, ISRO's launch vehicle successfully placed a new X-ray payload, XPoSat (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite), into orbit for astronomical research.
• XPoSat is the world’s second satellite-based mission dedicated to making X-ray polarimetry measurements.
• If the mission proceeds as planned, this entirely indigenous instrument in design and fabrication will mark another significant achievement for Indian astronomers.

What is XPoSat (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite)?

• X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is India’s first  and world’s second mission dedicated to analysing the polarisation of X-rays emanating from bright celestial sources in the medium frequency band.
• XPoSat comprises two payloads, including Indian X-ray Polarimeter (POLIX) and X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing (XSPECT).
• They have been built by Raman Research Institute and UR Rao Satellite Centre, both located in Bengaluru.
• The spacecraft is designated for observation from low earth orbit (~ 650 km, low inclination of ~ 6 degree).
• It has an estimated mission life of about five years during which XPoSat will observe sources that emit polarised X-rays.
• The observations will be done when the magnetars or neutron stars (they are highly magnetic and display a wide array of X-ray activity) are in transit through the Earth’s shadow, for instance, during the eclipse period.

What are the Two Scientific Payloads Onboard XPoSat?

• POLIX: It is the world’s first instrument designed to operate in the medium X-ray of 8 to 30 kilo electron Volt (keV) energy band.
• It comprises a collimator, which is the key component to filter light originating from bright sources in the field of view.
• Moreover, there is a scatterer consisting of four X-ray proportional counter detectors (that prevent the trapped light from escaping).
• It will observe a few tens of astronomical sources. It was conceived, designed, and built at RRI.
• XSPECT: It is designed to conduct fast timing and high spectroscopic resolution in a soft X-ray energy band (0.8-15 keV).
• It will observe a variety of sources like X-ray pulsars, black hole binaries, low-magnetic field neutron stars, active galactic nuclei or AGNs (a compact region at the centre of a galaxy that emits a significant amount of energy across the electromagnetic spectrum) and magnetars.

Why is the XPoSat Mission Significant?

• Till now, astronomers have largely used and depended on spectroscopic, imaging and timing–based data obtained from either ground-based telescopes or satellite-based missions from the optical to the radio frequency band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Polarisation of celestial sources was done either in the optical or radio bands.
• XPoSat, however, will be a game-changer and facilitate X-ray polarisation measurements possible from bright sources, that too, in the medium energy band (8-30 keV) energy range – which has never been attempted ever before.
• The XPoSat team has identified several tens of sources radiating X-rays.
• XPoSat will observe two kinds of sources:
• Persistent sources (targeted and known sources) and
• Transient sources (pulsars, active galactic nuclei, magnetars).
• Out in space, X-rays get polarised due to multiple causes.
• For example, X-rays when subject to strong magnetic fields or due to the interactions with material present around black holes.
• So, by studying the polarised X-rays emanating from excellent sources like magnetars, black holes and their surrounding environments, and neutron stars, scientists can probe the nature of the radiations and the multitudes of processes involved in the generation of these radiations.
• POLIX will undertake important measurements like the degree and angle of polarisation of X-ray photons from the environment surrounding black holes, neutron stars, and other such cosmic entities.
• These two additional parameters, along with the spectrographic, timing and imaging data, will aid researchers to overall improve the present understanding of the celestial bodies and ultimately unravel some of the unknown mysteries of the Universe.

What is the Polarisation of X-rays and Why Study It?

• X-rays comprise electric and magnetic waves that are constantly in motion.
• Being sinusoidal waves, they do not follow a patterned direction of motion.
• Whereas, a polarised X-ray is both organised and has two waves vibrating in the same direction.
• When magnetars or black holes emit X-rays, they encounter a wide variety of materials in the Universe.
• As X-rays pass through the thick cloud of materials, the electric component of the X-ray emits a photon in a changed direction, as it has now undergone scattering.
• In the process, the new photon has got polarised in a direction perpendicular to the plane formed between the original and scattered photon.
• The polarisation measurements – angular and degree of polarisation – are believed to provide clues about the bright X-ray emitting sources the nature of these radiations and the complex process they undergo.
• X-rays are electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is 0.01-10 nanometres (where 1 nanometre is one-billionth of a metre), corresponding to energies of 100-100,000 electron-volt (eV).
• Electromagnetic radiation is characterised by an electric field and a magnetic field vibrating perpendicular to each other.
• The polarisation of electromagnetic radiation refers to the orientation of these two fields as the radiation moves through space.
• X-rays can be polarised when they get scattered.
• For example, when an X-ray travelling through space encounters an atom, the electric field of the X-ray can energise an electron, which will then emit a photon.
• Since X-rays are also photons, the new photon will give the impression that an X-ray photon has been scattered.
• Polarised X-rays are also produced when the path of a fast-moving charged particle is bent by a magnetic field.
• Studying these X-rays can reveal which way the magnetic field is pointing, and tracking how these X-rays evolve in time can reveal many things about the body producing such fields, like a pulsar.

How Does XPoSat Compare With X-ray Experiments or Missions Globally?

• Missions on X-ray polarisation measurements have been a handful, the world over.
• Some like HX-POL and XL-Calibur have been balloon-based and short-duration experiments by NASA and collaborators.
• Indian astronomers, using AstroSat which is India’s first astronomy-based space mission launched in September 2015 — performed timing and broadband spectroscopy of X-ray sources but no polarisation studies were performed.
• The lack of development of highly sensitive and precise instruments makes missions for polarisation measurements of X-rays extremely challenging, thus fewer missions have been attempted so far.
• In 2021, NASA launched Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE).
• It has been designed to operate and perform X-ray polarisation measurements within the soft X-ray band (2 to 8 keV energy band).
• Besides complementing IXPE, XPoSat’s payload POLIX will offer an expanded observational energy band, as it is designated to perform X-ray polarisation in the medium X-ray band (8 to 30 keV).

Conclusion

The accomplished launch of XPoSat and the deployment of POLIX mark a substantial advancement in India's commitment to excelling in space-based X-ray astronomy. With the inventive design of POLIX and its capability to investigate lower energy X-rays, coupled with its collaboration with NASA's instrument, Indian astronomers find themselves at the forefront of unravelling the enigmas surrounding pulsars and black holes. As XPoSat embarks on its cosmic scanning mission, the scientific community is eagerly anticipating the valuable insights it is poised to deliver.

Why is it in the News?

The government appointed former NITI Aayog Vice-Chairman Arvind Panagariya Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission, which will recommend the tax revenue sharing formula between the Centre and States for the five-year period beginning April 2026.

Constitution of the 16th Finance Commission:

• The Government of India, with the approval of the President of India, has constituted the 16th Finance Commission, in pursuance to Article 280(1) of the Constitution.
• Dr Arvind Panagariya, former Vice-Chairman, of NITI Aayog, and Professor, at Columbia University will be the Chairman.
• Members of the 16th Finance Commission would be notified separately.
• Shri Ritvik Ranjanam Pandey has been appointed as Secretary to the Commission.
• The 16th Finance Commission shall make recommendations as to the following matters, namely:
• The distribution between the Union and the States of the net proceeds of taxes which are to be, or maybe, divided between them under Chapter I, Part XII of the Constitution and the allocation between the States of the respective shares of such proceeds;
• The principles which should govern the grants-in-aid of the revenues of the States out of the Consolidated Fund of India and the sums to be paid to the States by way of grants-in-aid of their revenues under Article 275 of the Constitution for the purposes other than those specified in the provisos to clause (1) of that article; and
• The measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the Panchayats and Municipalities in the State on the basis of the recommendations made by the Finance Commission of the State.
• The 16th Finance Commission may review the present arrangements on financing Disaster Management initiatives, with reference to the funds constituted under the Disaster Management Act, 2005 (53 of 2005), and make appropriate recommendations thereon.
• The 16th Finance Commission has been requested to make its report available by the 31st day of October 2025 covering a period of five years commencing on the 1st day of April 2026.

15h Finance Commission Recommendations (Effective from 2021 to 2026):

• Tax Proceeds Allocation: The Commission advocates for an equitable distribution of tax proceeds between the central government and states, fostering a well-balanced fiscal sharing mechanism.
• Assessment of GST Impact: The FC underscores the importance of analyzing the impact of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) on the economy.
• This evaluation aims to comprehend the implications of GST implementation across various sectors.
• Performance-Linked Incentives: Proposed incentives are tied to states' efforts in addressing key issues like population control, ease of doing business, and other pertinent factors.
• Financial Assistance to States: The FC suggests the provision of revenue deficit grants, grants to local bodies, and disaster management grants to states.
• These grants are intended to bolster the financial requirements of the states and promote effective governance.

Proposed Recommendations for the 16th Finance Commission:

• Review of the 2018 Amendment to the Centre’s FRBM: This proposal aligns with the suggestion made by the 15th Finance Commission.
• In the fiscal year 2020-21, the combined debt-GDP ratio of the central and state governments reached 89.8%.
• While these figures have started declining, they remain significantly higher than the corresponding Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) norms of 40% and 20% established in the 2018 amendment.
• With the Centre’s fiscal deficit at 9.2% of GDP and that of states at 4.1% in 2020-21, it becomes imperative to re-examine the 2018 amendment to the Centre’s FRBM, especially considering the deviations from established norms.
• Limiting Freebies: Some state governments exhibit relatively higher debt and fiscal deficit figures compared to their Gross State Domestic Products (GSDPs).
• Two primary concerns arise in this context: the widespread distribution of subsidies and the reintroduction of the previous pension scheme in states without a clear identification of funding sources and the resultant fiscal burdens.
• Often, these subsidies are financed by increasing the fiscal deficit. While advocating for safety nets for the poor is essential in a country facing economic challenges, a prudent approach is crucial.
• The next Finance Commission should provide explicit guidelines to ensure long-term fiscal sustainability and responsible spending on gratuities.

Freebies Must Be Restricted Through Reform:

• An innovative approach to address this issue is the establishment of a loan council, as suggested by the 12th Finance Commission.
• This independent body would monitor the scale and profiles of loans taken by both the central and state governments.
• The 16th Finance Commission should thoroughly scrutinize non-merit subsidies.
• It is crucial for the Finance Commission to enforce strict adherence to fiscal deficit limits by states.
• Incentives should be provided for states maintaining fiscal discipline, potentially integrating fiscal performance as a criterion in horizontal distribution.
• Conversely, measures should be imposed on states exceeding fiscal deficit limits, with appropriate actions taken on their borrowing capacities.

Conclusion

During the pre-reform era, Finance Commission recommendations held less significance, given alternative methods the Centre employed to compensate states. However, with the abolition of the Planning Commission, the Finance Commission has emerged as the primary architect of India's fiscal federalism, shouldering substantial responsibility and wielding significant influence. The recommendations provided by the 16th Finance Commission will be critical as India progresses towards becoming the world's third-largest economy.

Finance Commission:

• The Finance Commission is a constitutional body responsible for providing recommendations on the distribution of tax revenues among the Union and the States, as well as among the States themselves.
• Composition: Constituted by the President under Article 280 of the Constitution, the Finance Commission is formed at the end of every fifth year or earlier, as deemed necessary.
• Parliament has the authority to establish the requisite qualifications for commission members and determine the selection process, as enacted by The Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951.
• Mandate: The Commission is tasked with making recommendations to the President on various aspects, including the distribution of net tax proceeds between the Union and the States, principles governing grants-in-aid to State revenues, measures to augment a State's Consolidated Fund, and other matters referred to it by the President in the interest of sound finance.
• Composition: The Finance Commission comprises a Chairman and four other members appointed by the President.
• The Chairman is selected from individuals with experience in public affairs, while the other members may have qualifications related to judiciary, financial expertise, administration, or economics.
• Tenure: Each member serves a term specified by the President and is eligible for reappointment.
• Independence: The recommendations of the Finance Commission, although significant, are not binding on the government.